340
IRISH INDEPENDENCE
(1922)In the 1918 general election,
republicans seeking independence
from the United Kingdom won a
majority of Irish seats. After the
republicans set up their own
parliament (the Dáil) and declared
Ireland independent, Britain sent
troops to quell the rebellion. By
1922, however, the two sides
reached an agreement that most of
Ireland should become independent
as the Irish Free State, while the six
northeastern counties, which had a
Protestant majority, should remain
part of the United Kingdom. This
division is still in place to this day.THE SPANISH CIVIL WAR
(1936–39)In 1930–31, republicans overthrew
Spain’s military dictatorship and
forced King Alfonso XIII into exile.
The republican government
introduced socialist reforms and
reduced the power of the church
and the military. However, a revolt
by disgruntled army officers and
members of the Fascist Falange
party led to civil war in 1936.
The conflict escalated into an
international ideological clash,
with Fascist Italy and Germany
supporting the right-wing
Nationalists, while socialists from
all over Europe volunteered to join
their Republican comrades in Spain.
Nationalist leader General Francisco
Franco led his side to victory and
ruled as dictator of Spain until 1975.DE GAULLE FOUNDS THE
FRENCH FIFTH REPUBLIC
(1958)In 1958, France faced a crisis
over the future of its colony
Algeria—members of the French
army opposed that country’s
independence and were in open
revolt against the Fourth Republic’s
policies. The Republic collapsed,
and retired military and political
leader General Charles de Gaulle
proposed a new government system
with a strong executive president.
This proposal won approval in a
referendum, and de Gaulle himself
was elected president. This Fifth
Republic is still in place in France.SUHARTO REPLACES
SUKARNO IN INDONESIA
(1965–67)In 1965 there was an attempted
coup against Indonesia’s President
Sukarno, but troops under Major-
General Suharto, who had led
Indonesia to independence in 1940,
defeated the rebels. Communists
were blamed for the coup, and
Suharto, having seized power from
Sukarno, had some 500,000 alleged
communists killed. As Indonesia’s
second president, Suharto ruled
until 1998, leading the country into
a period of economic development,
with better health and living
conditions for many. However,
his government was corrupt—
he embezzled millions of dollars—
and his invasion of East Timor
resulted in a massive death toll.FURTHER EVENTS
WORLD WAR II IN
THE PACIFIC
(1941–45)In December 1941, the Japanese
bombed the US fleet in Pearl
Harbor, Hawaii, and launched a
campaign of invasion in Thailand,
Malaysia, Burma, the Philippines,
and other targets. This action
brought the US into World War II.
US and Japanese forces were
involved in years of bitter fighting,
including a long air campaign; the
largest ever naval battle at Leyte
Gulf, Philippines (1944); a three-
month land campaign to retake
the Philippines; the bloody 82-
day battle of Okinawa; and the
dropping of atomic bombs on
Hiroshima and Nagasaki (1945).THE FOUNDING OF THE
UNITED NATIONS
(1944)The United Nations was conceived
during World War II as a way to bring
the countries of the world together in
order to prevent further devastating
conflicts. Its aims were outlined at
a 1944 conference at Dumbarton
Oaks, Washington, DC, and it
was formally established in 1945.
Although the UN did not prevent
subsequent wars, it has worked
worldwide to promote peace and,
through a range of special agencies
and organizations, to champion
education, health, human rights,
independence for colonized peoples,
and economic development. Most
countries are now members.US_340-341_CH6_Further_Events.indd 340 15/02/2016 16:46
THE MODERN WORLD 341
THE MILITARY COUP
IN BRAZIL
(1964)The 1964 coup ousted Brazilian
president João Goulart, whose social
reforms were labeled “communist”
by opponents. The coup, which was
carried out by part of the army with
US backing, ushered in a military
government whose policies were
in line with US views. There was a
huge increase in foreign economic
involvement in Brazil, and half of the
country’s largest companies passed
into foreign ownership. Brazil
enjoyed high economic growth
under the dictatorship, but at the
expense of freedom, as opponents of
the regime were treated harshly.THE RED ARMY FACTION’S
TERRORIST ACTIVITY
(1970s)In 1968, many western countries
saw anti-capitalist and anti-
imperialist demonstrations, strikes,
and riots. These failed to produce
any change, however, and in the
aftermath, a number of groups
evolved to pursue an armed anti-
capitalist struggle. One of the most
long-lasting of these groups was
the Germany Red Army Faction,
founded in 1970 and also known
as the Baader-Meinhof group, after
two of its founders, Andreas Baader
and Ulrike Meinhof. The group
carried out a series of terrorist
attacks (including kidnappings,
bombings, robberies, and murders),
mostly in the 1970s but also in
later decades. Their activities—
and those of similar groups such
as the Revolutionary Cells (also
operating in Germany in the same
period)—alienated most people.PINOCHET SEIZES POWER
IN CHILE
(1973)In 1973, a military coup led by
General Augusto Pinochet deposed
Chile’s elected socialist leader
Salvador Allende, bringing Pinochet
to power at the head of a military
junta. The US opposed Allende’s
left-wing government and backed
the coup, because it considered its
support for right-wing dictatorships
in South America as part of its Cold
War struggle against communism:
socialist regimes were suppressed
even if they were completely
democratic. Pinochet, who was
notorious for imprisoning, killing,
and torturing his opponents,
continued to receive American
backing and ruled until 1990.THE SOVIET INVASION
OF AFGHANISTAN
(1979)In the late 1970s, Afghanistan’s
left-wing government (a close ally
of the Soviet Union) was threatened
by US-backed Muslim fighters, the
mujahideen, who objected to the
regime’s modernizing policies in
areas such as women’s education.
In 1979, the USSR invaded
Afghanistan, beginning a 10-year
war in which an estimated 1.5
million Afghans were killed and
many others left the country.
Groups of mujahideen guerrillas
fought the invaders, who withdrew
in 1989. The war left the USSR
militarily and politically weakened,
contributing to its collapse. A civil
war then broke out between the
mujahideen and the Afghan army,
and power eventually passed to
the hardline Islamic Taliban.THE IRANIAN REVOLUTION
(1979)Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, the Shah
of Iran, headed a secular regime
that westernized the country and
brought prosperity for some. In the
late 1970s, an increasingly strong
opposition movement gained
prominence, led by Islamic leaders
such as Ayatollah Khomeini, who
preached against the country’s
encroaching secular capitalism (as
well as against communism). In
1979, the Shah was forced to leave
the country, and Ayatollah Khomeini
installed a new government that
was focused on very strict Muslim
values. The revolution had a huge
impact, particularly in highlighting
the increasing prominence of Islam
on the world stage and in relations
between the countries of the west
and the Middle East.THE US AND BRITAIN
INVADE IRAQ
(2003)The 2003 invasion of Iraq started a
war that saw forces, mainly from
the US and Britain, deposing
the Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein,
who oppressed his own people,
supported international terrorism,
and, according to the US and its
allies, possessed weapons of mass
destruction. Although the latter
claim proved to be unfounded,
the removal of Saddam Hussein
was nonetheless welcomed by
many Iraqis. However, the lack
of a post-war strategy brought
further instability and violence to
Iraq, and the war gave extremist
opponents of the US and their allies
a pretext for launching terrorist
attacks against them.US_340-341_CH6_Further_Events.indd 341 15/02/2016 16:46