The History Book

48

T

he term “democracy”

comes from the Greek

words demos (people) and

kratos (rule). The democracy that

developed in ancient Athens

around 507 bce and flourished in

its purest form from 462 to 322 bce,

albeit with some interruptions,

provided the model for what has

become the dominant form of

government in the world: by 2015,

125 of the world’s 195 countries

were electoral democracies. The

democracy of ancient Athens,

however, differed from its modern

form, reflecting the history of

Athens and the warring Greek

states of the age.

Oligarchs and hoplites

After the chaos of the ancient

Greek Dark Ages—a period that

followed the breakdown of

Mycenaean civilization around

110 0 bce and lasted until about

the 9th century bce—most of the

emergent city-states evolved into

oligarchies, with powerful nobles

monopolizing government and

serving their own interests. In

Athens, the Areopagus—a council

and law court consisting of men of

aristocratic birth—controlled the

machinery of state, appointing

officials and serving as a civil

court, while the lower classes

(thetes) were excluded from office.

However, the development of the

“hoplite” model of citizen-soldiery in

the 8th to 7th centuries bce proved

disruptive to those who were in

power, as it led to a certain level of

egalitarianism. Hoplites were men

in the heavy infantry, mainly free

citizens, whose primary tactic was

the phalanx—a military formation

in which soldiers stood in tightly

packed ranks, with each man’s

shield protecting the hoplite to his

left. Any man who could afford the

arms and armor would be putting

his life on the line to defend the

state. As a result, a kind of middle

class emerged, which declared that

service should bring full citizenship

and political representation. At the

same time, the lower classes were

also making demands, and tensions

between them and the higher

orders over key issues, such as land

reform and debt slavery, threatened

to lead to civil breakdown.

Solon and Cleisthenes

In Athens, some of these tensions

were eased around 594 bce by the

reforms of the statesman Solon. He

Pericles

Pericles (c.495–429 bce) became

Athens’ most famous democrat

and the leading man of the

city-state for about 30 years.

He came to prominence around

462 bce, when he helped the

politician Ephialtes dismantle

the Areopagus—the last bastion

of oligarchic control. After

Ephialtes’ death, Pericles

undertook further reforms,

including the introduction of pay

for those serving in the courts,

making it possible for even the

poorest citizen to have his say.

He is also believed to have

helped drive Athens’ assertive

foreign policy as the city sought

to exploit its dominance of the

Delian League. During the

440s and 430s bce, Pericles

was involved in an ambitious

public building program that

provoked controversy at home,

where he fought off revolt, and

abroad, where he was

condemned for requisitioning

money from the Delian League

to pay for the Parthenon.

Nonetheless, he was popular

and was elected as general

every year from 443 bce.

ATHENIAN DEMOCRACY

IN CONTEXT

FOCUS

Greek politics

and philosophy

BEFORE

14th–13th centuries bce

Mycenaean settlement at

Athens, with fortification

of the Acropolis.

c.900 bce Political union of

small towns in Attica into a

city-state centered on Athens.

c.590 bce Reforms of Solon

open the political machinery

of Athens to all citizens,

regardless of class.

AFTER

86 bce Athens sacked by

Romans under General Sulla.

c.50 bce Beginning of the

Roman philhellenic movement;

Athens becomes the focus of

imperial benefactors.

529 ce Christian Emperor

Justinian I closes Plato’s school

and drives out pagan scholars.

To the Athenian the

fruits of other countries

are as familiar a luxury

as those of his own.

Pericles

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49

The Parthenon, built in 447–438 bce

as a temple dedicated to the goddess

Athena, is often seen as a symbol of

democracy and Western civilization.

established a law that declared all

citizens could vote in matters of

state, and that a law court should

admit all citizens. At the same

time, however, he mollified the

upper classes by introducing a

graded oligarchy in which power

corresponded to wealth—the

aristocracy was to control the

highest offices, the middle class the

lesser offices, and the poor could be

selected by lot to serve on juries.

In the late 6th century bce,

Athens fell under the sway of the

tyrant Pisistratus and his sons.

In response, a faction of aristocrats

led by Cleisthenes allied with

lower-ranking members of society

to take power. The institution of

true democracy in Athens is

traditionally dated to this point—

around 507 bce. Cleisthenes

introduced true popular government,

or direct democracy, enabling all

citizens of Athens to vote directly

on Athenian policy (unlike in a

contemporary representative

democracy, in which the people

elect representatives to act as the

legislature). He also reorganized

the citizenry into units by geography

rather than kinship, breaking the

traditional ties that underpinned

Athenian aristocratic society, and

established sortition—the random

selection of citizens for government

positions rather than basing the

choice on heredity. In addition, he

restructured the Boule—a council

of 500, which drew up legislation

and proposed laws to the assembly

of voters (Ecclesia). In 501 bce,

command of the military was

transferred to popularly elected

generals (strategoi).

In 462 bce, Ephialtes became

leader of the democratic movement

in Athens and, together with his

deputy Pericles, he dismantled the

See also: The Law Code of Hammurabi 36–37 ■ The palace at Knossos 42–43 ■ The Persian Wars 44–45 ■

The conquests of Alexander the Great 52–53 ■ The Peloponnesian Wars 70 ■ The fall of Constantinople 138–41

ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS

Poor farmers are forced

into debt slavery, causing

major resentment.

Middle-class hoplites achieve

military success, leading to

desire for representation.

Pressure for change is strong. The limited political reforms of

Solon fail to meet the demands of the lower and middle classes.

Pisistratus achieves economic reforms, but he does not

satisfy continuing demands for political reform.

Aristocratic oligarchy monopolizes power.

Cleisthenes implements democracy and other

reforms creating a more egalitarian government.

Areopagus council, transferring the

majority of its powers to the Boule,

the Ecclesia, and the citizen courts.

Ephialtes was assassinated in

461 bce and Pericles took over the

political leadership, becoming one

of the most influential rulers in the

history of ancient Greece.

A perfect democracy?

Athens now had a genuine direct

democracy, but many people were

not allowed to participate in the

system as they were not considered

true citizens. Political rights were

restricted to adult male Athenians;

women, foreigners, and slaves were ❯❯

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