The History Book

70

THE INDUS VALLEY

CIVILIZATION COLLAPSES

c.1900–1700 bce

The Indus Valley Civilization

(c.3300–c.1700 bce) was based

around large cities with planned

streets and impressive drainage

and water-supply systems in what

are now Pakistan and northwestern

India. By 1900 bce, this civilization

was in decline and no longer

producing the elaborate jewelry and

fine seals for which it was famous.

By c.1700 bce, the great Indus cities

of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro were

virtually empty. The reason is

unclear, but the most likely

explanation is a combination of

crop failure and a decline in trade

with Egypt and Mesopotamia.

There is also some evidence of

flooding due to a change in the

course of the Indus River.

EMPEROR WU CLAIMS THE

MANDATE OF HEAVEN

(1046 bce)

The idea that the emperor of China

rules with the approval of heaven

dates to the Zhou dynasty, which

was founded when Wu and his ally

Jiang Ziya defeated the long-ruling

Shang at the Battle of Muye in 1046

bce. The Shang had presided

over a long period of peace and

prosperity but by the 1040s had

become corrupt. The Zhou concept

of the Mandate of Heaven aimed

to prevent this from happening,

placing good government above

noble birth, and sanctioning others

tools and ornamental objects in

bronze, but they were also among

the first in Europe to use iron for

items such as swords. Their striking

bronze jewelry bore intricate

patterns featuring spirals, knotwork,

and animal designs, which had a

lasting influence on later Celtic art.

THE PELOPONNESIAN

WARS

(431–404 bce)

The Peloponnesian Wars were

fought between Athens (initially

the most powerful Greek city-

state and the center of classical

civilization) and the more

militaristic Sparta. Sparta first

launched land-based attacks on

Athens, while Athens used its

superior sea power to suppress

revolts along the coast. In 413 bce,

an attack on Syracuse, Sicily,

went wrong, leaving most of the

Athenian force destroyed. Then

the Spartans, allied with Persia,

supported rebellions in a number

of Athenian subject states and

finally wiped out the Athenian fleet

at Aegospotam (405 bce). The war

deeply damaged Athens, ending

the golden age of Greek culture

and leaving Sparta dominant.

HANNIBAL INVADES ITALY

(218 bce)

By the 3rd century bce, Carthage,

in Tunisia, had established

itself as a major regional power,

extending along the coast of North

Africa before invading Spain in

FURTHER EVENTS

to overthrow the ruler if he did not

display these qualities. It influenced

the way the Chinese regarded their

rulers for thousands of years.

JUDAH DEFIES THE

ASSYRIANS

(c.700 bce)

In the 9th century bce, the Hebrew

state of Judah (west of the Dead

Sea) was part of the large Assyrian

empire. In the 8th century, the

Judaean ruler Hezekiah refused

to pay tribute to the Assyrians.

The Assyrian king, Sennacherib,

laid siege to Jerusalem (an event

described in the Bible), but the

Judaeans resisted their mighty

enemies, who failed to take the

city. Although this was a relatively

small setback for Assyria, it was a

triumph for the Judaeans, who

attributed their victory to Yahweh.

This was a major factor in the

Hebrew peoples’ adoption of

monotheistic religion soon after.

CELTIC CULTURE

FLOURISHES AT HALLSTATT

(c.650 bce)

In the 8th century bce, a distinctive

culture developed around Hallstatt,

southeast of modern Salzburg, in

Austria. Hallstatt’s people were

Celts, probably originally from

Russia, and by the time their

civilization reached its highest

point, around 650 bce, it had spread

west to eastern France, east into

Romania, and north to Bohemia and

Slovakia. Its people produced fine

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ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS 71

the 230s bce. In 218 bce, Hannibal,

Carthage’s commander in Spain,

took his army across the Alps to

attack Italy. Despite a series of

victories in what became known

as the Second Punic War, Hannibal

could not take Rome itself and in

202 bce, he returned to Africa.

The Romans had proved their

strength, put an end to the idea

that Carthage was invincible in

the Mediterranean, and paved the

way for their own rise to power.

VERCINGETORIX IS

DEFEATED AT ALESIA

(52 bce)

In 52 bce, the Gaulish chieftain

Vercingetorix led a revolt of local

tribes against the Roman conquest

of Gaul (modern France). At the

Battle of Alesia, in Burgundy

(eastern France), Roman forces

under Julius Caesar built an

ingenious donut-shaped

fortification around the town,

blocking Vercingetorix inside

while also creating a stronghold

against Gaulish reinforcements.

The chieftain was forced to

surrender, and after five years in

captivity he was strangled on

Caesar’s orders. The battle resulted

in an all-embracing Roman Empire

stretching right across Europe.

ROMANS OCCUPY BRITAIN

(43 ce)

In 43 ce, on the command of the

emperor Claudius, a Roman

invasion force landed in Britain.

In spite of opposition from local

chieftains such as Caratacus, and

a later revolt by the Iceni tribe

under their leader Boudica, Roman

rule eventually extended across

England to the Scottish border and

into Wales. The Romans governed

Britain until c.410, founding towns,

developing a system of roads, and

introducing such innovations as

underfloor heating and the use of

concrete for building. Many Britons

benefited from Roman rule and

from strong trading links with

the empire in products such as

metals and grain.

CHINA IS DIVIDED INTO

THREE KINGDOMS

(220 ce)

The last years of the Han dynasty

in China were marked by bitter

divisions and fighting that led in

220 ce to the country being divided

between three rival emperors,

all claiming to be the rightful

successors of the Han. These

Three Kingdoms—the Wei in the

north, the Wu in the south, and the

Shu in the west—reached a fairly

stable agreement over territory

until fighting broke out from

263, when the rival Jin dynasty

challenged and then conquered

them. The wars had a devastating

impact on the population.

THE MAYA CLASSICAL

PERIOD BEGINS

(250 ce)

The Maya civilization reached its

Classic phase in the 3rd century

ce, with a large number of cities

across Mexico and Guatemala

that featured distinctive temples

shaped as stepped pyramids,

carved monuments inscribed

with dates from the complex

Maya calendar, and a large and

extensive trade network. The

largest city was Teotihaucan in

central Mexico, although lowland

cities such as Tikal were also

powerful. Maya civilization left a

lasting mark in North and Central

America, its culture influencing

later peoples, such as the Aztecs.

OBELISKS ARE ERECTED

IN THE KINGDOM OF AXUM

(4th century ce)

In the 4th century ce, the people of

the Ethiopian city of Axum erected

tall stone obelisks that would be a

feature of their civilization. Axum

dominated the maritime trade

routes around the Horn of Arabia

and into the Indian Ocean, offering

traders a vital link between Asia

and the Mediterranean making the

kingdom an impressive income.

The obelisks are up to 108 ft (33 m)

tall and are thought to be memorials

to prominent people. They testify

to the power of this early African

kingdom and its development

of a distinctive civilization. The

obelisks have become symbols

of enduring African culture.

CLOVIS UNITES GAUL

(late 5th century ce)

The end of Roman rule in Gaul

(modern France) came about

when Clovis, leader of the Salian

Franks, defeated the Roman leader

Syagrius in 486 ce. This victory,

which added to those of Clovis’

father Childeric, brought virtually

all of France north of the Loire

under the rule of his dynasty,

called the Merovingians, after

his grandfather Merovech. The

Merovingians ruled France for

some 300 years, making real

the idea of a united France

independent of outside rulers.

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