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See also: The Battle of Milvian Bridge 66–67 ■ The Sack of Rome 68–69 ■ Belisarius retakes Rome 76–77 ■
The Investiture Controversy 96–97 ■ The fall of Jerusalem 106–07 ■ Martin Luther’s 95 theses 160–63THE MEDIEVAL WORLD
provinces were invaded by barbarian
tribes who established smaller
kingdoms on its former territory. At
first, the Eastern Roman emperors
did not recognize the legitimacy of
these new kings’ right to rule in
nominally Roman territory. But as
the new kingdoms, particularly that
of the Franks, became stronger and
more unified, Eastern Roman
recognition ceased to matter.From kingdom to empire
Charlemagne, who came to the
Frankish throne in 768, expanded
his dominions extensively over
time, conquering northern Italy
and Saxony, gaining some areas
from the Arabs in northern Spain,
and taking Avar territories in the
Danube. He strengthened Frankish
administration, establishing a
network of missi domenici—royal
agents who would enforce his will
in the provinces. For the first time
in centuries, a powerful ruler
controlled most of the former Western
Roman Empire’s lands, turning
them into a single political entity.By contrast, the Papacy had
experienced difficult times in the
8th century, snared in petty power
politics as various Roman noble
families sought to secure positions
in the ecclesiastical hierarchy.
After Leo was assaulted in Rome
in 799, he fled across the Alps to
seek help from Charlemagne,
inviting him to bring order to
Italy and restore the status of the
church. A year later, Leo crowned
Charlemagne, creating a Western
emperor alongside the Eastern one.Carolingian Renaissance
Charlemagne pushed forward his
program of reforms, issuing an
edict in 802 that required an oath
of loyalty to be sworn and laying
out the duties of his vassals. He
also invited distinguished scholars
to court, and encouraged academic
disciplines that had languished
since the collapse of the Roman
Empire, including grammar,
rhetoric, and astronomy. Music,
literature, art, and architecture
also flourished during his reign.
After Charlemagne’s death,
divisions were rife. The Frankish
custom of dividing the kingdom
between several heirs weakened
central authority and led to civil
wars; it also allowed the emergence
of powerful landowners, who often
challenged royal authority.
Ultimately, the empire split into
two main portions, which roughly
equate to France and Germany
today. The title of emperor was
passed down to the immediate
descendants of Charlemagne and
then, from the 10th century, to
more distantly related German
princes. In this form, as the Holy
Roman Empire, it was to survive
to the early 19th century. ■Charlemagne
Charlemagne (c.747–814) was
the eldest son of Pippin III,
who in 751 deposed the last
Merovingian king of the
Franks and assumed the royal
office himself. Energetic and
visionary, Charlemagne
greatly expanded the Frankish
kingdom. He was also a very
strong ruler, implementing
reforms that enhanced the
authority of the monarchy
and the church. In addition,
he reformed the kingdom’s
economy by introducing
a new monetary system,
standardizing weights and
measures, and unifying an
array of different currencies
to encourage commerce and
trade. His acquisition of the
imperial title in 800 further
consolidated his power, but at
first he made no plans to pass
it on. His first decision on the
succession, in 806, divided
the realm between three of
his sons but made no mention
of the office of emperor.
However, the deaths of two of
his sons led Charlemagne to
bequeath his lands and title to
a single heir—Louis the Pious.He cultivated the
liberal arts most studiously
and, greatly respecting
those who taught them,
he granted them
great honours.
Einhard
Frankish scholar and courtier
(c.770–840)US_082-083_Coronation_Charlemagne.indd 83 15/02/2016 16:41