61
Wheat is a monocotyledon (a plant
whose seed contains a single leaf) as
defined by Ray. Around 30 species of
this major food crop have evolved from
10,000 years of cultivation, and all of
them belong to the genus Triticum.See also: Jan Swammerdam 53 ■ Carl Linnaeus 74–75 ■ Christian Sprengel 104 ■ Charles Darwin 142–49 ■
Michael Syvanen 318–19
SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION
by groups derived from folklore,
such as grouping plants according
to which illnesses they could treat.
In 1666, Ray returned from a three-
year European tour with a large
collection of plants and animals
that he and his colleague Francis
Willughby intended to classify
along more scientific lines.
Practical nature
Ray introduced a novel practical,
observational approach. He
examined all parts of the plants,
from roots to stem tips and
flowers. He encouraged the terms
“petal” and “pollen” into general
usage and decided that floral type
should be an important feature for
classification, as should seed type.
He also introduced the distinction
between monocotyledons (plants
with a single seed leaf) and
dicotyledons (plants with two seed
leaves). However, he recommended
a limit to the number of features
used for classification, to prevent
species numbers multiplying to
unworkable proportions. His major
work, Historia Plantarum (Treatise
on Plants), published in three
volumes in 1686, 1688, and 1704,
contains more than 18,000 entries.
For Ray, reproduction was the
key to defining a species. His own
definition came from his experience
gathering specimens, sowing seeds,
and observing their germination:
“no surer criterion for determining
[plant] species has occurred to me
than the distinguishing features
that perpetuate themselves in
propagation from seed...Animals
likewise that differ specifically
preserve their distinct species
permanently; one species neversprings from the seed of another
nor vice versa.” Ray established
the basis of a true-breeding group
by which a species is still defined
today. In so doing, he made botany
and zoology scientific pursuits.
Devoutly religious, Ray saw his
work as a means of displaying
the wonders of God. ■John Ray Born in 1627 in Black Notley,
Essex, England, John Ray was the
son of the village blacksmith and
the local herbalist. At 16, he went
to Cambridge University, where
he studied widely and lectured on
topics from Greek to mathematics,
before joining the priesthood
in 1660. To recuperate from an
illness in 1650, he had taken to
nature walks and developed an
interest in botany.
Accompanied by his wealthy
student and supporter Francis
Willughby, Ray toured Britain and
Europe in the 1660s, studying
and collecting plants and animals.He married Margaret Oakley
in 1673 and, after leaving
Willughby’s household, lived
quietly in Black Notley to the
age of 77. He spent his later
years studying specimens in
order to assemble ever-more
ambitious plant and animal
catalogues. He wrote more
than 20 works on plants and
animals and their taxonomy,
form, and function, and on
theology and his travels.Key work1686–1704 Historia PlantarumNothing is invented and
perfected at the same time.
John Ray