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US Senator Joseph McCarthy
launched a Communist witch hunt
during the 1950s, generating an
environment of fear and high levels
of political and social conformity.
Asch also spoke to the subjects
who had maintained correct and
independent responses, and found
that they had not been unresponsive
to the majority, but had been able
to recover from the doubt that they
felt in order to give an honest
account of what they saw.
Asch performed variations on
the experiment to test what
difference the size of the majority
group made to levels of conformity.
He found that just one confederate
had virtually no influence on the
subject’s conformity, two had only a
small influence, but three or more
encouraged a relatively stable
tendency to conform. Unanimity in
the confederates’ responses was a
more powerful factor; but even if
only one confederate offered an
alternative answer, the subjects
were much more likely to provide
an independent (and correct)
response. This finding highlights
the power of even a very small
dissenting minority. Furthermore,
Asch discovered that if he allowed
the participants to give their
answers privately, by writing
them down on a piece of paper,
conformity noticeably decreased,
and this held true even if the
confederates were still giving
their answers aloud.Cultural norms
Some psychologists hypothesized
that Asch’s findings reflected the
cultural climate of 1950s America
during McCarthyism, when dissent
was seen as anti-American and
people were imprisoned for their
opinions. Later studies found
variations in levels of conformity.
For instance, a study conducted
in the early 1970s (a time of liberal,
progressive thinking in the US)
found far lower rates of conformity.
However, a study in the late 1970s
showed a return to higher rates.
Conformity rates for cultures
worldwide also differ. Researchers
found that individualist cultures
such as the US, the UK, and other
Western European countries,
where personal choice and
individual achievements are
valued highly, show lower levels
of conformity than collectivist
cultures such as Japan, Fiji, and
African countries, where group
belonging is valued highly.
Psychologists have criticized
Asch’s methods on the grounds
that he focused on a stripped-down
version of group behavior that does
not feature much interaction
between participants, or that
he was more focused on the
individuals within a group than on
the group dynamic. Others wonder
if he overstated the power of the
majority to influence the minority.
Serge Moscovici, in particular,
disagreed with Asch’s analysis
and argued that an active minority
could influence the majority andSOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
bring about change. Moscovici was
inspired to develop his own studies
to demonstrate how a consistent
minority can affect the thinking
of the majority.
Although Asch acknowledges
that social life requires some
consensus, he also emphasizes
that this is most productive when
each individual contributes his
independent insight and experience.
Consensus should not come out of
fear or conformity; the fact that he
found the tendency to conform was
strong even among intelligent people
raised questions about societal
values and the quality of education.
Asch’s conclusions note the
power (and danger) of social
influence to shape a person’s
beliefs and behavior. If something
becomes normal for a group, social
pressure will ensure conformity.
Inspired by Asch’s theory, Stanley
Milgram’s experiment on obedience
showed that ordinary people are
capable of cruelty when under
pressure to conform.
However, the majority of
participants in Asch’s study, even
those who had conformed, stated
that they valued independence
of mind, leaving him optimistic
about humanity. ■A member of a
tribe of cannibals accepts
cannibalism as altogether
fitting and proper.
Solomon Asch