The Psychology Book

272

IN CONTEXT

APPROACH

Psychosocial development

BEFORE

1930s Jean Piaget proposes

a stage-based theory of

cognitive development.

1956 Sigmund Freud develops

his theory of psychosexual

development, claiming there

are five stages through which

a child progresses toward

sexual maturity.

AFTER

1980 Building on Erikson’s

work, American psychologist

James Marcia explores identity

formation in adolescence.

1996 In her bestselling book

New Passages, American

writer Gail Sheehy notes that

adults are prolonging their

adolescence into their 30s,

pushing back all of Erikson’s

stages of adulthood by

approximately ten years.

E

rik Erikson understood

human development in terms

of the epigenetic principle,

which states that every organism is

born with a certain purpose and its

successful development results in

the fulfillment of this purpose. In

Erikson’s own words, “anything that

grows has a ground plan, and out of

this the parts arise.” He proposed

that the human personality unfolds

and evolves in eight predetermined

stages. According to Erikson, this

growth involves the constant

interaction between heredity

and environmental influences.

The eight stages

The first stage, which takes place

during a baby’s first year, is “trust

versus mistrust.” If the infant’s

needs are badly or inconsistently

met, feelings of mistrust develop

that can recur in later relationships.

The second stage, “autonomy versus

shame and doubt,” takes place

from 18 months to 2 years. This is

when the child learns to explore,

but also for the first time must deal

with feelings of shame and doubt as

a result of small failures or parental

reprimands. Healthy willpower

develops as a result of learning to

negotiate both success and failure.

Stage three, from three to six years,

presents the crisis of “initiative

versus guilt.” This is when children

learn to act creatively and playfully,

but also with purpose. As they

interact with others they discover

that their actions can adversely

affect someone else. Severe

punishments at this stage can

inflict paralyzing feelings of guilt.

From 6 to 12, children focus on

education and learning social skills.

This fourth stage is known as

“industry versus inferiority,” and it

provides a feeling of competence,

although an over-emphasis on work

can lead children mistakenly to

equate self-worth with productivity.

A N Y T H I N G T H A T

GROWS HAS A

GROUND PLAN

ERIK ERIKSON (1902–1994)

Hope is both the earliest

and the most indispensable

virtue inherent in the

state of being alive.

Erik Erikson