The Psychology Book

PHILOSOPHICAL ROOTS 37

participants, or through measuring
levels of behavior such as tension
and relaxation or excitement.

Cultural psychology
For Wundt, the psychological
development of a person is
determined not only by sensations
but also by complex social and
cultural influences, which cannot
be replicated or controlled in an
experimental situation. He included
religion, language, myths, history,
art, laws, and customs among
these influences, discussing them
in a ten-volume work, Cultural
Psychology, which he wrote during
the last 20 years of his life.
Wundt saw language as an
especially important part of culture’s
contribution to consciousness. Any
verbal communication begins with
a “general impression,” or unified
idea of something we wish to say.
Having “apperceived” this general
starting point, we then choose
words and sentences to express it.
While speaking, we monitor the
accuracy of the intended meaning.
We might say, “No, that’s not right, I
mean...,” and then choose a different
word or phrase to express ourselves
better. Whoever is listening has to

understand the meaning that the

speaker is trying to convey, but

the actual words may not be as

important as the general impression,

especially if strong emotions are

involved. As evidence of the fact that

we use this process, Wundt points

out that we often remember the

general meaning of what a person

has said long after we’ve forgotten

the specific words that were used.

The ability to use true language,

as opposed to just exchanging

limited signs and signals, is today

Wilhelm Wundt Born in Baden (now Mannheim)

Germany, Wilhelm Wundt was

the fourth child in a family with

a long history of intellectual

achievement. His father was a

Lutheran minister. The young

Wundt was allowed little time for

play, as he was pushed through

a rigorous educational regime,

attending a strict Catholic school

from the age of 13. He went on to

study at the universities of Berlin,

Tübingen, and Heidelberg,

graduating in medicine in 1856.

Two years later, Wundt became

assistant to the physician Hermann

von Helmholtz, who was famous

for his work on visual perception.

While at Heidelberg, Wundt

started teaching the world’s first

course in experimental

psychology, and in 1879 opened

the first psychology laboratory.

Wundt wrote over 490 works

and was probably the world’s

most prolific scientific writer.

Key works

1863 Lectures on the Mind

of Humans and Animals

1896 Outline of Psychology

1873 Principles of Physiological

Psychology

considered by many psychologists

to be a key difference between

human beings and the rest of the

animal kingdom. There may be

a few exceptions, including

nonhuman primates such as

chimpanzees, but language is

generally considered to be a

human ability that is very

important in consciousness.

Consciousness and species

The definition of consciousness

continues to be debated, but it has

not fundamentally changed since

Wundt. The level of consciousness

within animals has not yet been

established, and this has led to the

formation of special Codes of Ethics

for animal experiments, intensive

farming, and blood sports such as

fox hunting and bull fighting. Of

particular concern is whether

animals experience discomfort,

fear, and pain in ways that

resemble the form in which we feel

them ourselves. The fundamental

question of which animals have

self-awareness or consciousness

remains unanswered, although few

psychologists today would assume,

as Wundt did, that it applies even

to the microscopic protozoa. ■

In the course of normal

speaking... the will is

continuously directed to

bringing the course of ideas

and the articulatory

movements into harmony

with each other.

Wilhelm Wundt