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The concept of varna may need
redefining in order to be workable in
21st-century India where newly defined
roles and nontraditional careers
challenge existing hierarchies.branded as unorthodox. But by
around 500 BCE a definite shift in
the way religion was viewed
throughout Hindu society had
taken place. Rather than being
seen as a means of maintaining
order, it now seemed to offer a way
to escape the bondage of physical
life by achieving a purely spiritual
existence. Seeking liberation
from, rather than alignment with,
the established order became
paramount. And in the centuries
that followed, the Hindu tradition
embraced the idea of personal
devotion as a means of liberation,
and worship became a matter
more of personal engagement than
simply the correct performance of
sacrifice. Over time, personal
forms of devotion and ritual
developed, so much so that shrines
became a common feature in
people’s homes, and a Brahmin
was no longer required to enable
acts of devotion to take place.
Religion and society
In the Vedic period, religion was
focused primarily on the individual
finding his or her place within the
universe, and within society, and
living in the way that had been
determined for that individual,
according to the varnas; it had,
therefore, both a personal and
a social dimension, as well as
an apparently rational system
for prescribing how the personal
and social interacted.
This early phase of Hinduism
highlights an issue for all religion,
namely whether it should be based
mainly on the individual, or on
society as a whole. Religions are
embedded within society, and it is
sometimes difficult to distinguish
truly religious ideas from beliefs
and attitudes that arise from the
political or cultural milieu within
which the religion developed.
It is also the case that religious
rules and traditions may be used
by a ruling elite to maintain
their own position.
Even posing the question
of whether religion should focus
on the individual or society is
problematic, for it implies that
a personal experience of religion
is more valid than the social. ■HINDUISM
Not by birth is one an
outcast; not by birth is one
a Brahmin. By deed one
becomes an outcast, by deed
one becomes a Brahmin.
Buddha on the varnasThe sacred literature
of HinduismHindu scriptures fall into two
categories, distinguished by
the names sruti and smriti.
The term sruti, which means
“that which is heard,” is used
to describe Vedic literature,
which was heard by priests
and scholars through the
process of revelation, or of the
realization of undoubted truth.
This canonical knowledge was
then passed down via the oral
tradition from one generation
of Brahmins to the next.
There are four collections
of Vedic hymns, composed
over a period of 1,000 years.
The first, thought to date
back to 1200 BCE, is the
Rig-Veda. Associated with
these, and also sruti, are
the Brahmanas, which
provide instructions about
the performance of ritual; the
Aranyakas, which outline
discussions on meditation and
ritual; and the Upanishads,
which provide philosophical
interpretations. Vedic sruti
literature is the ultimate
authority for Hindus.
The term smriti, which
translates as “that which
is remembered” is used to
describe the remaining Hindu
literature, notably the great
epic poems, the Mahabharata
and the Ramayana. While
not having the same status
as sruti, because they are
not thought to be divinely
inspired, these texts are
nonetheless important
because they are open to
interpretation. This significant
strand of Indian literature
is still hugely influential and
includes the Bhagavad-Gita,
probably the most popular
of all Hindu scriptures.