The Religions Book

DIRECTORY 333

attempted to accommodate,
and adapt to, the demands of
the modern world. Followers
consider it vital that Jews
engage with non-Jewish people.

REFORM JUDAISM

1885, Pittsburgh, PA

Popular in western Europe and
North America, Reform Judaism
has its origins in 19th-century
efforts to update liturgy and
worship in Europe. Reform Jews
tend to see the Torah as written
by a number of different writers
inspired by God, rather than as
God’s actual words. They have
adapted their beliefs and practices
to be more consistent with modern
lifestyles and are accordingly less
strict in their observances than
Orthodox Jews. For example,
Reform Jews have abandoned
many traditional dietary laws and
adopted new traditions, such as
the ordination of women rabbis.

CONSERVATIVE JUDAISM

1887, New York City, NY

Many Jews felt that the Reform
movement in the late 19th century
went too far in rejecting the
traditional tenets of their faith.
As a result, in 1887, the Jewish
Theological Seminary was founded
to foster a branch of the faith that
preserved the knowledge of
historical Judaism as exemplified
in the Hebrew Bible and the
Talmud. This form of Judaism, now
known as Conservative or Masorti
Judaism, holds that the Torah and
Talmud do have a divine origin,
and that their laws must be
followed; however, rabbis have a
freer hand in interpreting those

laws than their Orthodox

equivalents. Many of the rulings

of Conservative rabbis have been

rejected by Orthodox Jews, but the

movement has proved popular,

especially in the US.

JEWISH SCIENCE

1920s, Cincinnati, OH

The Jewish Science movement

was founded in the early 1920s

in the US by Alfred G. Moses,

Morris Lichtenstein, and Tehilla

Lichtenstein. It is often considered

to have been a response to the

growing influence of Christian

Science, as developed by Mary

Baker Eddy (p.337) at the end of

the 19th century. Adherents

are encouraged to cultivate a

sense of personal contentment

and a positive attitude toward

themselves and others. Rather

than being regarded as a paternal

figure, God is seen as an energy or

force that permeates the universe,

and as the source and restorer of

health. Self-help, visualization,

and affirmative prayer (focusing

on a positive outcome) are central

to the faith and are believed to

promote both physical and

spiritual well-being. Jewish

Science acknowledges modern

medicine and, unlike Christian

Science, permits conventional

medical treatment.

RECONSTRUCTIONIST

JUDAISM

1920s–40s New York City, NY

The Reconstructionist movement

was founded by Mordecai Kaplan,

a Lithuanian-born American. He

proposed a progressive approach

to Judaism, which he regarded to

be an appropriate response to

modernity. This branch of Judaism

considers the laws of the Torah to

be useful only if they have a clear

purpose for the Jewish people,

or for humanity as a whole, and

that the laws therefore require

continuous reinterpretation.

Some of the changes that have

been effected in Reconstructionist

Judaism are quite radical. For

example, their Sabbath Prayer

Book includes no mention of the

Jews as a chosen people, and

does not look forward to the

coming of a Messiah. In place of

such doctrines, Reconstructionism

strives for a better world for all,

populated by better people.

HUMANISTIC JUDAISM

1963, Michigan

Rabbi Sherwin T. Wine founded

Humanistic Judaism in the US

in the 1960s to offer nonreligious

Jews a nontheistic alternative to

the traditional religion. Humanistic

Jews hold that Judaism is an

ethnic culture formed by the

Jewish people, with no connection

to God. The tradition’s humanistic,

egalitarian philosophy is reflected

in its uplifting celebration of

Jewish culture: nontheistic rituals

and ceremonies are open to all,

Jew and non-Jew, regardless of

gender and sexual orientation.

Participation in religious festivals

is considered important, although

all references to God are omitted

from services, and religious

passages have been rewritten from

a secular perspective. Adherents

are encouraged to focus on self-

determination, self-help, and

reason to shape their lives,

rather than on the intervention

of divine authority.