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were founded in the Confucian
concepts of virtuous behavior; in
136 BCE the Han dynasty introduced
new competitive examinations for
the imperial civil service based
on meritocratic Confucian ideals. In
turn the Chinese concept of heaven
acquired a distinctly bureaucratic
tone, and by the time of the Song
dynasty (960–1279 CE), heaven was
seen as a mirror image of the court
of the Chinese emperor, with its
own emperor and a vast celestial
civil service of lesser deities.
Despite his many references to
heaven, Confucius did not believe
his moral precepts were derived
from the gods; instead he found
them already existing in the human
heart and mind. To this extent,
Confucianism is more a humanistic
system of moral philosophy than it
is a religion; although even today,
with some 5–6 million followers,
the distinction between the two
remains blurred. In Chinese popular
religion, Confucius has joined the
crowded pantheon of gods, but many
of his followers revere him simply as
a great teacher and thinker.Building on ritual
The adoption of Confucianism as a
religion stems largely from the fact
that Confucius upheld the duty to
practice rites and ceremonies that
honored ancestors. This he saw as
part of a wider imperative of loyalty
to family and friends, and respect
for elders—which Confucius
defined in what he called the Five
Constant Relationships (see left).
Reciprocity plays a key role in these
relationships, for Confucianism, at
its heart, embodies the Golden
Rule: do not do to others what you
do not want done to yourself.
Confucius believed that by
honoring ties of love, loyalty, ritual,
and tradition, virtuous thought,
virtuous action, and respect, notWISDOM LIES WITH THE SUPERIOR MAN
Confucius traveled and taught for
12 years, acquiring disciples in much
the same way that the contemporary
schools of philosophy were taking
shape in the Ancient Greek world.only could everybody be good, but
society would be bound together in
a positive and right-thinking way.
By revering the ancestors and
performing the correct rites in their
honor, humans could maintain a
state of harmony between this
world and heaven. At the family
level, such rites were an echo of
those in which the emperors made
sacrifices to their ancestors and
confirmed the Mandate of Heaven
under which they ruled.Father–Son
Parents are to be loving,
and children obedient.Brother–Brother
Elder siblings are to be
gentle, and younger
siblings respectful.Sovereign–Subject
Rulers should be benevolent,
and subjects loyal.Husband–Wife
Husbands are to be good and
fair, and wives understanding.Friend–Friend
Older friends are to be
considerate, younger
friends reverential.Only he who is
possessed of the
most complete sincerity
that can exist under
Heaven can transform.
Doctrine of the MeanThe Five Constant
Relationships