173
Burke condemned the French
Revolution for its wholesale rejection
of the past. He believed that change
should occur gradually—an idea that
became central to modern conservatism.THE AGE OF REVOLUTION
and virtue, and that while society
is indeed a contract or partnership,
it is not simply concerned with
economics, or, as he puts it, “gross
animal existence.” Society embodies
the common good (our agreement
on customs, norms, and values), but
for Burke “society” means more
than just the people living now—
it also includes our ancestors and
descendants. Moreover, because
every political constitution is part
of “the great primeval contract of
eternal society”, God himself is
society’s ultimate guarantor.
Burke’s view has the doctrine
of original sin (the idea that we are
born sinful) at its core, so he has
little sympathy for anyone seeking
to blame society for their conduct.
Likewise, he dismisses the idea,
proposed by John Locke, that we
can be perfected by education—as
though we are born innocent and
merely need to be given the correct
influences. For Burke, the fallibility
of individual judgment is why we
need tradition, to give us the moral
bearings we need—an argument
that echoes David Hume, who
claimed that “custom is the great
guide to human life.”
Tradition and change
Because society is an organic
structure with roots stretching
deep into the past, Burke believed
its political organization should
develop naturally over time. He
opposed the idea of sweeping or
abrupt political changes that cut
through this natural process. For
this reason he opposed the French
Revolution of 1789, foreseeing its
dangers long before the execution
of the king and the year-long Reign
of Terror. It also prompted him on
several occasions to criticize Jean-
Jacques Rousseau, whose book,
The Social Contract, argued that
the contract between citizens and
the state can be broken at any time,
depending on the will of the people.
Another regular target for Burke
was the English philosopher and
scientist Joseph Priestley, who
applauded the French Revolution
and pilloried the idea of original sin.
Despite his scepticism about
modern commercial society, Burke
was a great defender of private
property, and was optimistic about
the free market. For this reason, he is
often hailed as the “father of modern
conservatism”—a philosophy that
values both economic freedom and
tradition. Today, even socialists
would agree with Burke that private
property is a fundamental social
institution, but would disagree
with him about its value. Likewise,
ecologically-minded philosophers
share his belief in the duties of one
generation to the next, but with
the new agenda of creating a
“sustainable society.” ■Edmund Burke
The Anglo-Irish politician
Edmund Burke was born
and educated in Dublin. From
his youth onward, he was
convinced that philosophy
was useful training for
politics, and in the 1750s
he wrote notable essays on
aesthetics and the origins
of society. He served as an
English MP from 1766 until
1794, and he was a prominent
member of the Whig party—
the more liberal of the two
aristocratic parties of the day.
Burke was sympathetic
toward the cause of American
independence—which sparked
a revolution that was entirely
justified, in his view—and
later became involved in the
impeachment trial of Warren
Hastings, the Governor-
General of India. He remained
a scathing critic of colonial
malpractice for the rest of his
life, and earned a reputation
for being the conscience of
the British Empire.Key works1756 A Vindication of Natural
Society
1770 Thoughts on the Present
Discontents
1790 Reflections on the
Revolution in FranceSee also: John Locke 130–33 ■ David Hume 148–53 ■ Jean-Jacques Rousseau
15 4 –59 ■ Adam Smith 160–63 ■ John Rawls 294–95