The Philosophy Book

70

P

hilosophy did not play a

large part in Roman culture,

other than Stoicism, which

was admired by the Romans for

its emphasis on virtuous conduct

and doing one’s duty. The broader

philosophical tradition that had

been established by the Classical

Greeks was therefore effectively

marginalized under the Roman

Empire. Philosophy continued to be

taught in Athens, but its influence

dwindled, and no significant

philosophers emerged until Plotinus

in the 3rd century CE, who founded

an important Neo-Platonist school.

During the first millennium of

the Common Era, Roman influence

also waned, both politically and

culturally. Christianity became

assimilated into the Roman culture,

and after the fall of the empire in

the 5th century, the Church

became the dominant authority in

Western Europe, remaining so for

almost 1,000 years. The Greek idea

of philosophy as rational examination

independent of religious doctrine

sat uncomfortably with the rise of

Christianity. Questions about the

nature of the universe and what

constitutes a virtuous life were held

to be answered in the scriptures;

they were not considered subjects

for philosophical discussion.

Early Christian philosophers such

as St. Augustine of Hippo sought

to integrate Greek philosophy into

the Christian religion. This process

was the main task of scholasticism,

a philosophical approach that

stemmed from the monastic schools

and was renowned for its rigorous

dialectical reasoning. The work of

scholastic philosophers such as

Augustine was not so much an

exploration of questions such as

“Is there a God?” or “Does man

have an immortal soul?” as a search

for a rational justification for the

belief in God and an immortal soul.

The Dark Ages

As the Roman Empire shrank and

eventually fell, Europe sank into the

“Dark Ages” and most of the culture

it had inherited from Greece and

Rome disappeared. The Church

held the monopoly on learning,

and the only true philosophy that

survived was a form of Platonism

deemed compatible with

Christianity, and Boethius’s

translation of Aristotle’s Logic.

Elsewhere, however, culture

thrived. China and Japan in

particular enjoyed a “Golden Age”

of poetry and art, while traditional

eastern philosophies coexisted

INTRODUCTION

C.260

313

C.510

618

395 622

397–98 711

Boethius begins to

translate Aristotle’s

work on logic.

Constantine I proclaims

religious freedom within

the Roman Empire in the

Edict of Milan.

Crises brought on by both

internal and external forces

lead to the division of the

Roman Empire into east and

west. The western empire

falls within a century.

The prophet Muhammad

performs the Hejira, his

journey from Mecca to Medina,

marking the beginning of

the Muslim era.

St. Augustine of

Hippo writes his

Confessions.

Conquest of

Christian Iberia

(now Spain and

Portugal) by

Muslim invaders.

Plotinus founds
Neo-Platonism,
a school of mystical
philosophy based on
the writings of Plato.

The Tang dynasty is

established in China,

bringing a Golden Age

of cultural development.