and his contemporaries, eventually
finding inspiration in chaos theory
and fractal mathematics.
As restrictions on the arts lifted
in Poland, Krzysztof Penderecki
and others leapt at the chance to
create a new musical language,
composing pieces for conventional
instruments in “blocks” of sound
reminiscent of electronic music
or, like Witold Lutosławski, they
introduced elements of chance
into their work. This eclectic
approach to musical composition,
incorporating elements of different
styles, was also a feature of the
music of Luciano Berio, who
embraced musical collage.The birth of minimalism
Much of this new music perplexed
and alienated listeners, and in
1960s America, there was a reactionagainst it. In place of complexity,
some young composers advocated
simplicity, or minimalism. Pioneered
by Terry Riley and given fresh
impetus by Philip Glass and Steve
Reich, the style was characterized
by repetition and the most basic
of harmonies, partly inspired by
the hypnotic qualities of some
African and Asian music. A
number of composers encouraged
improvisation by the performers.
In Riley’s In C, the order, duration,
and tempo of the composition are
determined by the musicians.Cross-cultural trends
In the late 1960s, as political,
social, and technological horizons
widened, the fusion and cross-
fertilization of musical cultures
became increasingly evident,
as in the work of Toru Takemitsu,who composed for Western and
Japanese instruments, and the
cross-cultural music of Kaija
Saariaho. Classical composers
also absorbed ideas from popular
culture, incorporating elements
of pop and rock music as well as
jazz into their work, while also
embracing the possibilities of
new technology. British composer
Thomas Adès’s In Seven Days,
for example, is a multimedia
work, while American composer
Eric Whitacre has explored the
possibility of “virtual” ensembles,
assembled via the Internet.
It is too early to say which
direction classical music will take
in the 21st century, or what the
next musical movement will be. But
history suggests that composers
will continue to find many new
means of musical expression. ■1967
1968
1969
1976 1993 2 011
1977 2000
Luciano Berio
uses collage and
quotation to compose
a kaleidoscope of
musical texture
in Sinfonia.Eight Songs for a Mad
King by Peter Maxwell
Davies, based on the
words of King George III,
presents a new type of
“music theatre.”With minimal words
and no intervals,
Philip Glass’s
Einstein on the Beach
subverts the traditional
narrative of opera.Witold Lutosławki’s
25-minute Fourth
Symphony is
performed as one
continuous movement
of two sections.The American
composer Eric
Whitacre adapts his
instrumental work
October to a choral
setting in Alleluia.Toru Takemitsu
juxtaposes Eastern
and Western musical
traditions in the
orchestral work
November Steps.Canadian composer
Raymond Murray
Schafer’s biblically
inspired Apocalypsis
features multiple choirs,
conductors, and orchestras.Jennifer Higdon
composes and
premieres blue
cathedral, a work
that epitomizes a
return to lyricism.CONTEMPORARY 297
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