15 What can we conclude? 355languages in which adjectives are classified as verb-like (Korean, Lao, Qiang, and
Semelai) or are optionally verb-like as in Tariana with its unusual mixed system.
The reasons for such a correlation observed here and the extent to which it may
hold across other languages are not clear but certainly warrant further investiga-
tion. It may turn out to be the case that languages will frequently employ an ad-
jective-specific intensifier allowing for adjectives to be distinguished from verbs in
otherwise strongly verb-like systems.
8 Reduplication
Reduplication with a semantic but not class-changing effect specific to adjectives
is an unexpectedly effective criterion that allows for adjectives to be distinguished
from other word types. This distinguishing ability occurs in at least seven languages
in our sample (North-East Ambae, Korean, Lao, Manange, Qiang, Semelai, Wolof).
Unexpectedly, all of these languages have verb-like adjectives (Manange also has an
additional so-called simple adjective class). The reason for this correlation is not un-
derstood and, like the adjective-specific intensifier, warrants further investigation.
Reduplication appears most frequently to mark intensification on adjectives, but
less so on verbs, as in Qiang where the effect on verbs usually involves reciprocality.
In Semelai reduplication has major morphosyntactic effects in addition to seman-
tic ones, all of which can be used to distinguish adjectives from verbs. Reduplicated
adjectives have intensified meaning and can function in unrestricted fashion as
predicate, noun modifier, and adverb. Reduplicated intransitives and transitives are
exclusively predicative, and with very different semantic values: in addition to a gen-
eral continuative sense, aimlessness is implied with intransitives and attentiveness
with transitives. Non-adjectival statives also have intensified sense when redupli-
cated, but like all other verbs, are restricted to predicative function.
Lao has two types of reduplication: Type A is restricted to monosyllabic adjec-
tives, has a semantic approximative effect, e.g. suungi 'tall' > sung0-suung3 'tallish',
and occurs most frequently in attributive position. Type B reduplication is open
to verbs and adjectives, regardless of phonological shape, and has an intensifying
or emphatic effect.
In North-East Ambae, adjectives, otherwise verb-like in most circumstances,
exhibit the most non-verb-like behaviour in reduplication, as is made clear in
the very useful summary in Table 5 in Chapter 11. In addition to different class-
changing derivational effects in this language, an intensifying effect is shared by
adjectives and verbs, but reduplication marks reciprocality, habitualness, and plur-
ality only on verbs.9 Adjectives functioning as head of noun phrase
Adjectives are rarely reported to function as head of the noun phrase. Such a
criterion is therefore extremely useful in distinguishing between adjectives and