the 2 × 2 factorial design (Q-position × Locality). Fifty-four fi ller sentences
were also prepared in order to mask the purpose of the experiment from the
participants. Sentences were presented pseudo-randomly. Reading times for
each bunsetsu phrase were measured, and each sentence was followed by a
comprehension question about the content of the sentence to make sure that
the students were paying enough attention to the content of the sentences
while reading.
The template of the target sentences is shown in (9), and a sample set of
the target materials in (10). We manipulated the distance between the wh-
phrase dono soodanin-ga ‘which counselor-nom’ and the verb, e.g., sinziteiru
‘believe’, by switching (scrambling) the positions of the wh-phrase and the
embedded clause. In the distant conditions, the embedded clause was placed
between the wh-phrase and the verb, while in the local conditions, it was
placed before the wh-phrase. In the local conditions, the wh-phrase and the
verb that had the thematic relation with the wh-phrase were placed next to
each other. We also manipulated the position of the Q-particle ka which
determined the scope of the wh-phrase. In the Mid-Q conditions, the
Q-particle was attached to the verb that assigns a thematic role to the wh-
phrase (it was called “Mid-Q” because among the three clauses involved, it
appeared in the middle one ). This position of the Q-particle was the gram-
matically closest position for the wh-phrase, in the sense that the wh-phrase
and the Q-particle were in the same clause and the wh-phrase was c-com-
manded and licensed by the Q-particle. In the High-Q conditions, on the
other hand, the Q-particle appeared with the matrix verb, and the whole
sentence became a wh-question. In the High-Q conditions, the wh-phrase
and the Q-particle were not in the same clause, and the Q-particle was
attached to the verb in a higher (superjacent) clause. See Ono and Nakatani
(2014) for the use o f similar paradigm.
(9) Mid-Q conditions
a. [which NP-NOM [... comp clause... ] verb-Q ] Loc NP-TOP V DISTANT
b. [[... comp clause... ] which NP-NOM verb-Q ] Loc NP-TOP V LOCAL
High-Q conditions
c. [which NP-NOM [... comp clause... ] verb-C ] Loc NP-TOP V-Q DISTANT
d. [[... comp clause... ] which NP-NOM verb-C ] Loc NP-TOP V-Q LOCAL(10) A sample set of target sentences
a. dono soodanin-ga [sensee-ga tyapatu-no namaikina
which counselor-NOM teacher-NOM dyed.hair-GEN impertinent
gakusee-o hidoku sikatta-to] sinziteiru-ka
student-ACC harshly scolded-C] believe-Q
kyoositu-de hogosya-wa kikimasita.
classroom-at parents-TOP askedMake a good prediction 93