Supreme Court said in Brown, “[Some] Negro and white schools involved
have been equalized or are being equalized, with respect to buildings,
curricula, qualifications and salaries of teachers, and other ‘tangible’ factors.
Our decision, therefore, cannot turn on merely a comparison of these tangible
factors.”
Only Boorstin and Kelley gets Brown right: “The problem, of course, was
that there really could never be such a thing as ‘separate but equal’ facilities
for the two races. When any race was kept apart from another, it was deprived
of its equality—which meant its right to be treated like all other citizens.”
Textbooks need to offer the sociological definition of segregation: a system of
racial etiquette that keeps the oppressed group separate from the oppressor
when both are doing equal tasks, like learning the multiplication tables, but
allows intimate closeness when the tasks are hierarchical, like cooking or
cleaning for white employers. The rationale of segregation thus implies that the
oppressed are a pariah people. “Unclean!” was the caste message of every
“colored” water fountain, waiting room, and courtroom Bible. “Inferior” was
the implication of every school that excluded blacks (and often Mexicans,
Native Americans, and “Orientals”). This ideology was born in slavery and
remained alive to rationalize the second-class citizenship imposed on African
Americans after Reconstruction. This stigma is why separate could never mean
equal, even when black facilities might be newer or physically superior.
Elements of this stigma survive to harm the self-image of some African
Americans today, which helps explain why Caribbean blacks who immigrate to
the United States often outperform black Americans.^72
During the nadir, segregation increased everywhere. Jackie Robinson was
not the first black player in major league baseball. Blacks had played in the
major leagues in the nineteenth century, but by 1889 whites had forced them
out. In 1911 the Kentucky Derby eliminated black jockeys after they won
fifteen of the first twenty-eight derbies.^73 Particularly in the South, whites
attacked the richest and most successful African Americans, just as they had
the most acculturated Native Americans, so upward mobility offered no way
out for blacks but only made them more of a target. In the North as well as in
the South, whites forced African Americans from skilled occupations and even
unskilled jobs such as postal carriers.^74 Eventually our system of segregation
spread to South Africa, to Bermuda, and even to European-controlled enclaves
in China and India.