A Tour of Egypt 35development. Temples built in this era have Greek-influenced
reliefs as seen, for example, in Edfu, Esna and Philae.
The Ptolemaic era saw Egypt fully integrated into the
affairs of the Near and Middle East. Unlike earlier periods,
technological, agricultural and trade innovations became
assimilated into Egyptian life. Egypt still, however, resisted
Greek philosophy and religion. Essentially, the Ptolemies kept
Egypt independent from other outside rulers. But it was the
death of the most famous, and perhaps cleverest, Ptolemaic
Queen Cleopatra VII (69–30 BC), that marked the demise of
Egypt’s independence once and for all.
Cleopatra’s Last Days
Octavian (later Augustus) defeated Cleopatra’s military forces
under the command of Marc Antony at Actium in 31 BC. Unable to
seduce Augustus and thus maintain power over the throne of Egypt,
Cleopatra VII committed suicide by clasping the infamous asp to
her breast in 30 BC. If you are interested in reading the earliest
accounts of Cleopatra VII, see Plutarch’s Parallel Lives, originally
written in the fi rst century.Under Roman rule, Egypt had little or no political
autonomy. Rome used Egypt as its bread basket. Even though
Rome ruled Egypt with a tight grip, it was largely tolerant of
Greek-infl uenced architectural reliefs can be seen at the temple of Philae.