Western Civilization

Catullus’s ability to express in simple fashion his

intense feelings and curiosity about himself and his

world had a noticeable impact on later Latin poets.

The development of Roman prose was greatly aided

by the practice of oratory. Romans had great respect

for oratory because the ability to persuade people in

public debate meant success in politics. Oratory was

brought to perfection in a literary fashion by Cicero

(SIS-uh-roh) (106–43B.C.E.), the best exemplar of the

literary and intellectual interests of the senatorial

elite of the late republic and, indeed, the greatest

prose writer of that period. For Cicero, oratory was

not simply skillful speaking. An orator was a states-

man, a man who achieved his highest goal by pursuing

an active life in public affairs.

Later, when the turmoil of the late republic forced

him into semiretirement from politics, Cicero became

more interested in writing philosophical treatises. He

performed a valuable service for Roman society by pop-

ularizing and making understandable the works of

Greek philosophers. In his philosophical works, Cicero,

more than anyone else, transmitted the classical intel-

lectual heritage to the Western world, but his original

contributions came in the field of politics. His works

On the Laws and On the Republic provided fresh

insights into political thought, including the need for a

mixed constitution: “a moderate and well-balanced

form of government which is a combination of the

three simple good forms (monarchy, aristocracy, and

democracy) is preferable even to monarchy.”^3

Roman Art

The Romans were also dependent on the Greeks for

artistic inspiration. During the third and second centu-

riesB.C.E., they adopted many features of the Hellenistic

styleofart.TheRomansdevelopedatasteforGreek

statues, which they placed in their homes as well as in

public buildings. Once demand outstripped the supply of

original works, reproductions of Greek statues became

fashionable. The Romans’ own portrait sculpture was

characterized by an intense realism that included even

unpleasant physical details. Wall paintings and frescoes

in the houses of the rich realistically depicted landscapes,

portraits, and scenes from mythological stories.

The Romans excelled in architecture, a highly practi-

cal art. Although they continued to employ Greek styles

and made use of colonnades, rectangular structures, and

post-and-lintel construction, the Romans were also

innovative. They made considerable use of curvilinear

forms—the arch, vault, and dome—and were also the

first people in antiquity to use concrete on an enormous

scale. By combining concrete and curvilinear forms, they

were able to construct massive buildings—public baths

and amphitheaters, the most famous of which was the

Coliseum in Rome, which could seat 50,000 spectators.

Roman engineering skills were also put to use in con-

structing roads (the Romans built a network of 50,000

miles of roads throughout their empire), aqueducts (in

Rome, almost a dozen aqueducts kept a population of

1 million supplied with water), and bridges.

Values and Attitudes

By nature a conservative people, the Romans were very

concerned about maintaining themos maiorum(MOHSS

my-YOR-um), the customs or traditions of their ances-

tors. They emphasized parental authority and, above

all, their obligations to the state. The highest virtue

was pietas (PY-i-tas)—the dutiful execution of one’s

obligations to one’s fellow citizens, to the gods, and to

the state.

By the second centuryB.C.E., however, the creation

of an empire had begun to weaken the old values. The

Romans began to focus more on affluence, status, and

material possessions. Emphasis shifted toward indi-

vidualism and away from collective well-being, the old

public spirit that had served Rome so well. Romans

who worried about the decline of the old values blamed

it on different causes. Some felt that after the destruc-

tion of Carthage, the Romans no longer had any strong

enemies to challenge them. Others believed that the

Romans had simply been overwhelmed by the affluence

afforded by the new empire. And some blamed every-

thing on the Greeks for importing ideas and practices

baneful to the Romans. Of course, many Romans,

though desirous of maintaining traditional values, were

also well aware that the acquisition of an empire had

created a new world with new demands and values.

The Decline and Fall of the

Roman Republic (133–31B.C.E.)

Q FOCUSQUESTION: What were the main problems

Rome faced during the last century of the republic,

and how were they ultimately resolved?

By the mid-second centuryB.C.E., Roman domination of

the Mediterranean Sea was well established. Yet the

process of building an empire had weakened and

threatened the internal stability of Rome. This internal

The Decline and Fall of the Roman Republic (133–31B.C.E.) 111

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