Western Civilization

convert to Christianity. But complaints about the sincer-

ity of these Jewish converts prompted Ferdinand and

Isabella to ask the pope to introduce the Inquisition into

Spain in 1478. Under royal control, the Inquisition

worked to guarantee the orthodoxy of the converts but

had no authority over practicing Jews. Consequently, in

1492, Ferdinand and Isabella took the drastic step of ex-

pelling all professed Jews from Spain. It is estimated

that 150,000 out of possibly 200,000 Jews fled.

Ferdinand and Isabella had also pursued a policy of

battling the Muslims by attacking the kingdom of

Granada. The war against this remaining Muslim king-

dom lasted eleven years until the final bastion of the

city of Granada fell in 1492. Muslims were now

“encouraged” to convert to Christianity, and in 1502,

Isabella issued a decree expelling all professed Muslims

from her kingdom. To a very large degree, the “Most

Catholic” monarchs had achieved their goal of absolute

religious orthodoxy as a basic ingredient of the Spanish

state. To be Spanish was to be Catholic, a policy of uni-

formity enforced by the Inquisition.

Central Europe: The Holy Roman Empire

After 1438, the position of Holy Roman emperor was

in the hands of the Habsburg dynasty. Having gradu-

ally acquired a number of possessions along the

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MAP 12.2Europe in the Second Half of the Fifteenth Century.By the second half of the
fifteenth century, states in western Europe, particularly France, Spain, and England, had begun the
process of modern state building. With varying success, they reined in the power of the church and
nobles, increased the ability to levy taxes, and established effective government bureaucracies.
Q What aspects of Europe’s political boundaries help explain why France and the Holy
Roman Empire were often at war with each other?
294 Chapter 12 Recovery and Rebirth: The Age of the Renaissance
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