Western Civilization

both minor and major European powers—Denmark,

Sweden, France, and Spain—made the war a Europe-

wide struggle (see Map 15.1). The struggle for European

leadership between the Bourbon dynasty of France and

the Habsburg dynasties of Spain and the Holy Roman

Empire was an especially important factor. Nevertheless,

most of the battles were fought on German soil, with

devastating results for the German people.

The Peace of Westphalia, which officially ended the

war in Germany in 1648, ensured that all German

states, including the Calvinist ones, were free to

determine their own religion. The major contenders

gained new territories, and one of them, France,

emerged as the dominant nation in Europe. The more

than three hundred states that made up the Holy

Roman Empire were recognized as virtually independ-

ent, each with the power to conduct its own foreign

policy. The Habsburg emperor had been reduced to a

figurehead. The Peace of Westphalia also made it clear

that religion and politics were now separate in the

Mediterranean Sea

Atlantic

Ocean

North

Sea

Baltic

Sea

Crete

Sicily

Corsica

Sardinia

Baleari

c^ Isl

and

s^

SPAIN

PORTUGAL

FRANCE

ENGLAND

SCOTLAND

DENMARK

NORWAY

SWEDEN

FINLAND

POLAND

HUNGARY

AUSTRIA

BRANDENBURG

BOHEMIA

SILESIA

PRUSSIA

SPANISH

NETHERLANDS

SWISS

CONFEDERATION

SAVOY

GENOA

TUSCANY

PAPAL

STATES

REPUBLIC

BAVARIA

UNITED

PROVINCES

KINGDOM OF

DENMARK

AND NORWAY

MILAN

KINGDOM OF SWEDEN ESTONIA

LIVONIA

PALATINATE

VENICE

OF

Madrid

Lisbon

Paris

London

Toul

Verdun Metz

Amsterdam

Berlin

Warsaw

Danzig

Bergen

Stockholm

Vienna

Buda

Rome

Naples

Augsburg

Prague

Hamburg

Lübeck

Bremen

Rocroi Westphalia

1643

Lützen

1632

White Mountain

1620

Nördlingen

1634

ALSACE

Ebro R.

Seine

(^) R.
Rh
ine
(^) R
.
(^)
(^) R.
(^) Dan
ube R.
Danub
e
(^) Vi
stula
R.
(^) Pyrene
es
Alp
s^
Kingdom of Denmark
and Norway
Brandenburg
Kingdom of Sweden
Habsburg (Austrian)
Habsburg (Spanish)
Holy Roman Empire
boundary in 1648
Battle site
0 200 400 Miles
0 200 400 600 Kilometers
MAP 15.1The Thirty Years’ War.The conflict began in the German states as Europe’s major
powers backed either the northern Protestant Union or the southern Catholic League. As the war
progressed, religion receded in importance, replaced by a dynastic struggle between the French
Bourbons and the Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs.
Q Compare this map with Map 13.2. Which countries engaged in the war were
predominantly Protestant, which were predominantly Catholic, and which were
mixed?
Social Crises, War, and Rebellions 361
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