Western Civilization

texts date to around 3000B.C.E. and were written by

the Sumerians, who used acuneiform(kyoo-NEE-uh-

form) (“wedge-shaped”) system of writing. Using a reed

stylus, they made wedge-shaped impressions on clay

tablets, which were then baked or dried in the sun.

Once dried, these tablets were virtually indestructible,

and the several hundred thousand that have been dis-

covered have served as a valuable source of informa-

tion for modern scholars. Sumerian writing evolved

from drawings of physical objects to simplified and

stylized signs, leading eventually to a phonetic system

that made possible the written expression of abstract

ideas.

Mesopotamian peoples used writing primarily for

record keeping. They also produced monumental texts,

documents that were intended to last forever, such as

inscriptions etched in stone on statues and royal build-

ings. Numerous texts were prepared for teaching pur-

poses. Schools for scribes, which were in operation by

2500 B.C.E., were necessary because much time was

needed to master the cuneiform system of writing. The

primary goal of scribal education was to produce pro-

fessionally trained scribes for careers in the temples

and palaces, the military, and government. Pupils were

male and primarily from wealthy families.

Writing was important because it enabled a society

to keep records and maintain knowledge of previous

practices and events. Writing also made it possible for

people to communicate ideas in new ways, which is

especially evident in Mesopotamian literary works. The

most famous piece of Mesopotamian literature wasThe

Epic of Gilgamesh, an elaborate poem that records the

exploits of a legendary king of Uruk. Gilgamesh—wise,

strong, and perfect in body, part man, part god—

befriends a hairy beast named Enkidu. Together they

set off in pursuit of heroic deeds. When Enkidu dies,

Gilgamesh experiences the pain of mortality and

embarks on a search for the secret of immortality, in

which he finds Utnapishtim, a man who had been

granted “everlasting life” by the gods and survived the

Great Flood sent by the gods to destroy humankind

(see the box on p. 15). But his efforts fail, and Gilga-

mesh remains mortal. The desire for immortality, one

of humankind’s great searches, ends in complete frus-

tration. Everlasting life, this Mesopotamian epic makes

clear, is only for the gods.

People in Mesopotamia also made outstanding

achievements in mathematics and astronomy. In math,

the Sumerians devised a number system based on 60,

using combinations of 6 and 10 for practical solutions.

Geometry was used to measure fields and erect

buildings. In astronomy, the Sumerians made use of

units of 60 and charted the heavenly constellations.

Their calendar was based on twelve lunar months and

was brought into harmony with the solar year by add-

ing an extra month from time to time.

Egyptian Civilization: “The Gift

of the Nile”

Q FOCUSQUESTION: What are the basic features of

the three major periods of Egyptian history? What

elements of continuity are there in the three

periods? What are their major differences?

Although contemporaneous with Mesopotamia, civili-

zation in Egypt evolved along somewhat different lines.

Of central importance to the development of Egyptian

civilization was the Nile River. That the Egyptian peo-

ple recognized its significance is apparent in thisHymn

to the Nile: “The bringer of food, rich in provisions, cre-

ator of all good, lord of majesty, sweet of fragrance....

He who... fills the magazines, makes the granaries

wide, and gives things to the poor. He who makes ev-

ery beloved tree to grow... .”^6 Egypt, like Mesopotamia,

was a river valley civilization.

The Impact of Geography

The Nile, the longest river in the world, begins in the

heart of Africa and courses northward for thousands of

miles. Thanks to the Nile, an area several miles wide on

both banks of the river was capable of producing abun-

dant harvests. The “miracle” of the Nile was its annual

flooding. The river rose in the summer from rains in

Central Africa and the Ethiopian highlands, crested in

Egypt in September and October, and left a deposit of

silt that enriched the soil. The Egyptians called this fer-

tile land the “Black Land” because it was dark from the

silt and the lush crops that grew on it. Beyond these

narrow strips of fertile fields lay the deserts (the “Red

Land”).

Unlike the floods of Mesopotamia’s rivers, the flood-

ing of the Nile was gradual and usually predictable, and

the river itself was seen as life-enhancing, not life-

threatening. Although a system of organized irrigation

was still necessary, the small villages along the Nile

could make the effort without the massive state inter-

vention that was required in Mesopotamia. Egyptian

civilization consequently tended to remain more rural,

with many small population centers congregated along

14 Chapter 1 The Ancient Near East: The First Civilizations

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