Chapter 8
ARABS: ASSIMILATION
AND SOCIAL CHANGE
TRIBAL SOCIETY
One of the most apparent social consequences of the conquest was
an extension of tribal social organization, especially in urban settings.
This was associated with the new ruling group and was partly the
result of the cohesion of tribal groups, which preserved their identities
in the garrison cities and even enhanced their ties to other groups on
the basis of nominal kinship. The state also helped to preserve such
identities by using them as a basis for military organization. An equally
powerful influence in the survival of tribal society, however, was the
Qur'an. It sanctioned many aspects of the tribal social ethic, such as
the importance of group solidarity, joint responsibility, exemplary
behavior, generosity, hospitality, the protection of the weak by the
strong, raiding, and retaliation. Although the intention in the Qur'an
was to replace tribal identities with an Islamic identity, many tribal
social values received a new religious sanction in the process.
Retaliation is a good example of the survival and reinterpretation
of the tribal ethic in early Islamic Iraq. The Qur'an sanctioned the
principle of retaliation partly because it was impossible.to suppress it
completely and partly because the early Islamic community at Madina
faced a desperate struggle for survival. But the Qur'an also attempted
to prevent an unending chain of blood vengeance by recommending
charity, forgiveness, and the acceptance of a blood-price (Ar. diya) as
the better way.l
The annals of early Islamic history are full of examples of retaliation,
and there is no question that it remained one of the most important
responsibilities· of kinship. Of greater significance are the attempts by
the state to restrict and to control it. When two of Muthanna's lieu-
tenants drowned several members of the tribes of Taghlib and Namir
at Siffin in 634 in retaliation for a pre-Islamic grievance, 'Umar made
them swear that they had done it as an example and not out of
vengeance.^2 Under Mu'awiya the state attempted to regulate the op-
1 Qur'an, 2:178; 5:45.
2 TabarI, Ta'rzkh, I, 2207-8.