ADMINISTRATIONtation. Consequently, there seems to be sufficient evidence to warrant
the suggestion that in Islamic Iraq during the seventh century the
division of financial and military responsibilities was viewed as a frame
of reference; administrative arrangements often were described in these
terms in the Arabic literary tradition, while occasionally financial and
military responsibilities were actually divided between two officials at
the same time in the same place.
Early Islamic administration also duplicated the relationship be-
tween the ispahbadh and his padhghOspan in the office of lieutenant
or vice governor (Ar. khaltfa) to the amtr. Although khaltfa was used
for a subordinate official before Islam and outside of Iraq, this term
appears in references to early Islamic Iraq with the meaning of a
lieutenant appointed by either his immediate superior or by the Com-
mander of the Faithful for the same jurisdiction as his superior during
the latter's absence (usually at the capital). The best example of this
practice from the end of the Sasanian period is the case of Farriikh-
Hurmizd, the ispahbadh of Khurasan during the reign of Azermidukht
(ca. 632). He remained at court as an unsuccessful suitor of the queen
while his son Rustam, who is said to be the same man as the famous
general of Yazdagerd Ill, served as his father's khaltfa in Khurasan.^42
The recall of the lieutenants of Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqa~ from their frontier
posts in 638 and their settlement in the newly founded city of Kufa
provides a striking parallel to Sasanian practice. Each of them took
up his residence in the provincial capital, leaving his own lieutenant
(Ar. khaltfa) in charge of his post.^43 Since the beginning of Islamic
rule, a khaltfa was also appointed for the governors of Basra and Kufa
during their absence.^44
The Mint
The financial responsibilities of early Islamic governors included
minting coins. Governors shared this responsibility with the Com-
42 Tabarl, Ta'rlkh, I, 1065; Ya'qiibi, Ta'rlkh, I, 197. The use of this term in this
co.ntext appears to be an Arabic translation of piidhghospan and serves to increase the
impression of a connection between these two offices. Elsewhere the term khallfa is
used for a viceroy in a south Arabian inscription of 543; see W. Montgomery Watt,
"God's Caliph: Qur'anic Interpretations and Umayyad Claims," in Iran and Islam, ed.
C. E. Bosworth (Edinburgh, 1971), p. 567. Khallfa is also used for the representative
of a rural official (Gk. pagarch) in an Egyptian papyrus of 643; see A. Grohmann,
From the World of Arabic Papyri (Cairo, 1952), p. 114.
43 Tabarl, Ta'r"ikh, I, 2497. The lieutenant whom Qa'qa' ibn 'Amr left at Hulwan
was a Persian from Khurasan called Qubadh.
44 Ibid., I, 2607, 3414; Ya'qiibl, Ta'rzkh, 11, 166.