RESOURCESand Mandaeism (Leiden, 1978). One should also consult E. Yamau-
chi's Gnostic Ethics and Mandaean Origins (Cambridge, Mass., 1970).
There is hardly any literature specifically devoted to demonic mis-
guidance, but for the Me~allyane one can use I. Hausherr's "L'erreur
fondamentale et la logique de Messalianisme," OCP 1 (1935): 328-
60, and A. V66bus, Les Messaliens et les reformes de Barqauma de
Nisibe dans I'Eglise perse (Pinneberg, 1947). On related issues in the
Qur'an, see P. A. Biebler, Die Dschinn, Teufel und Engel im Koran
(Leipzig, 1928), and D. Rahbar, God of Justice: A Study in the Ethical
Doctrine of the Qur'an (Leiden, 1960). For an evaluation of the work
of T. Izutsu on Qur'anic semantics and ethics, such as his Ethico-
Religious Concepts in the Qur'an (Montreal, 1966), see H. B. Partin's
"Semantics of the Qur'an: A Consideration of Izutsu's Studies," His-
tory of Religions 9 (1970): 358-62. G. Hourani's "Ethical Presup-
positions of the Qur'an," MW 70 (1980): 1-28, has good sections on
guidance, justice, and oppression.Muslims: The Formation of the Community
The Qur'an stands as the earliest Islamic expression. Its text is
available with accompanying English translations by A. Yusuf 'Ali,
The Holy Qur'an, Text, Translation and Commentary, 3rd ed. (La-
hore, 1938), and by M. Z. Khan, The Quran, Arabic Text with English
Translation, 2nd rev. ed. (London, 1975). Modern historical studies
of the Qur'an have been concerned mainly with the relationship of its
content to MUQammad's career and to other religious traditions, when
it was written down, variant readings, and the establishment of a
standardized text. The standard Western interpretation is represented
by W. Montgomery Watt's Bell's Introduction to the Qur'an (Edin-
burgh, 1970), and by the forty-eight articles from 1921 to 1970 on
the interpretation of the Qur'an, Christian and Jewish influences, pre-
destination, etc. by R. Paret republished in his Der Koran (Darmstadt,
1975). The question of the establishment of a standardized text of the
Qur'an tends to be sidetracked by imposing mainly Christian notions
of a scriptural "canon" on it, as in the case of the Avesta. Rarely have
teacher and student taken such diametrically opposed positions as
J. Wansbrough, who argues that the Qur'an as we know it did not
exist before the ninth century in his Qur'anic Studies: Sources and
Methods of Scriptural Interpretation (London, 1977), and J. Burton,
who argues that it existed as such before MUQammad died in The
Collection of the Qur'an (Cambridge, 1977).