RESOURCESand Constitutional Theory (New York, 1903); and T. W. Arnold's
The Preaching of Islam: A History of the Propagation of the Muslim
Faith (New York, 1903).
On the nature of the Muslim religious community, see G. Nie-
wenhuise, "The umma, an Analytic Approach," SIlO (1959): 5-22;
and F. M. Denny, "Some Religio-Communal Terms and Concepts in
the Qur'an," Numen 24 (1977): 26-59. For an evaluation of J. P.
Charnay's Sociologie religieuse de l'Islam: Preliminaires (Paris, 1977),
see the review by R. Marston Speight in Muslim World 70 (1980):
285-87. J. Wansbrough's The Sectarian Milieu: Content and Com-
position of Islamic Salvation History (Oxford, 1978) is a structuralist
analysis of the intellectual dimensions of communal differentiation,
especially in terms of authority and identity. Because of the materials
he used, his comments apply mainly to the eighth century, but he tends
to treat Judaism and Christianity as monolithic, unchanging traditions
for the purposes of comparison. On enforcing the communal bound-
ary, see R. Peters and G. de Vries, "Apostasy in Islam," WI 17 (1976-
77): 1-25.
The articles by E. Diez on the Masjid as a building and communal
cehter in EI(l), "Manara," III: 227-31; "Masdjid," Ill: 315-88, and
"Mibrab," Ill: 485-90, are now largely out of date. In addition to
the works on architecture and art history cited above, one should see
G. C. Miles, "Mibrab and 'Anazah: A Study in Early Islamic Ico-
nography," in Archaeologica Orientalia in Memoriam Ernst Herzfeld
(Locust Valley, N.Y., 1952), pp. 156-71. Although E. Lambert points
out similarities between masjids and synagogues in "La Synagogue de
Doura-Europos et les origines de la mosquee," Semitica 3 (1950): 67-
72, and "Les Origines de la Mosquee et l'architecture religieuse des
Omeiyades," SI 6 (1956): 5-18, it is probably going too far to derive
the masjid from the synagogue.
Pagan and Magian "influences" on Muslim ritual worship were
suggested by l. Goldziher in "Zauber-elemente im Islamischen Gebet,"
Noldeke-Festschrift (Giessen, 1906), I: 320-28; "Islamisme et Par-
sisme," RHR 43 (1901): 1-29, and "The Influence of Parsism on
Islam," in The Religion of the Iranian Peoples, ed. C. P. Tiele, tr.
G. K. Nariman (Bombay, 1912), pp. 163-86. A. J. Wensinck gives a
more balanced view in "Salat," EI(l), IV: 69-105. The most extreme
claims for Jewish "influence" were made by C. C. Torrey in The Jewish
Foundations of Islam (New York, 1933; repr. 1968). The only attempt
to use Arabic literature to describe early Muslim burials seems to be