RESOURCES(Vienna, 1870). There are important suggestions in W. Heffening's
"Zum Aufbau der islamischen Rechtswerke," in Studien zur Ge-
schichte und Kultur des nahen und fernen Os tens, ed. Heffening and
W. Kirfel (Leiden, 1935), pp. 101-18. E. Tyan's Histoire de I'or-
ganisation judiciaire en pays d'Islam (Paris, 1938; Leiden, 1960) was
a major attempt at a synthesis and provoked a lengthy review article
from M. Gaudefroy-Demombynes, "Notes sur I'Histoire de I'organ-
isation judiciaire en pays d'Islam," REI (Paris, 1939), pp. 109-47.
Interest in origins and comparative law led to theories about the "in-
fluence" of other, older legal traditions on Islamic law. J. Schacht
suggested an ancient Babylonian background for certain Islamic legal
formulas and principles based on their circumstantial similarity with-
out showing how they might have survived until Islamic times in "Vom
babylonischen zum islamischen Recht," Orientalistische Literaturzei-
tung 30 (1927): 664-69. A stronger case has been made for Roman
law, as in M. Hamidullah's Influence of Roman Law on Muslim Law,
Journal of the Hyderabad Academy, Studies, no. 6 (Madras, 1943).
Counter arguments advanced by S. G. Vesey-Fitzgerald in "The Alleged
Debt of Islamic to Roman Law," Law Quarterly Review 67 (1951):
81"';'102, were answered by J. Schacht in "Droit byzantine et droit
musulman," in XII Convegno "Volta" (Rome, 1957), pp. 197-230,
although the evidence is circumstantial at best and it remains to be
shown how Roman law might have affected the development of Islamic
law in the Hijaz or Iraq.
The standard studies on early Islamic law are J. Schacht's The Origins
of Muhammadan Jurisprudence (Oxford, 1953) and An Introduction
to Islamic Law (Oxford, 1964), but he tended to define Islamic law
in terms of the Shiifi'i system. The most important work since Schacht
has been done by N. J." Coulson in "Doctrine and Practice in Islamic
Law: One Aspect of the Problem," BSOAS 18 (1956): 211-26, A
History of Islamic Law (Edinburgh, 1964), and Conflicts and Tensions
in Islamic Jurisprudence (Chicago, 1969).
The most direct sources on early Islamic piety and religious life are
works on asceticism, such as the Kitiib az-zuhd wa-I-raqii'iq, ed. al-
A'~ami (Haydarabad, 1966) of 'Abdulliih ibn al-Mubiirak (d. 1811
797), and the Kitiib az-zuhd, ed. R. G. Khoury (Wiesbaden, 1976) of
Asad ibn Miisii al-Umawi (749/50-827). Similar expressions in the
poetry of Abii l-'Atiihiya Ismii'il ibn al-Qiisim (747/8-ca. 826) have
been translated into German by O. Rescher in Der Dtwiln des AM
'l-Atilhija, vol. I, Die zuhdijjilt (Stuttgart, 1928). Early maliimatz be-