RESOURCEShavior has received almost no attention except for R. Hartmann's
article on "As-Sulami's Risalat al-Malamatija," Der Islam 8 (1918):
157-203, but Sulami lived at Nishapur from 941 to 1021. The lives
of pious Muslims who lived in the seventh and eighth centuries, which
are recounted in the first volume of Abii Nu'aym al-I~fahani's lfilyat
al-awliya' wa tabaqat al-a$fiya' (Cairo, 1932; Beirut, 1967), are col-
ored by an eleventh-century Sii£i perspective and should be used with
caution.
As far as pious practices themselves are concerned, G. Vajda com-
pared Muslim and Jewish fasting in "Jeune Musulman et Jeune Juif,"
HUCA 12-13 (1937-38): 367-85. K. Wagtendonk examined Fasting
in the Koran (Leiden, 1968), and there is a recent study on the fast
of Rama<.ian by K. Lech called Geschichte des islamischen Kultus:
Rechtshistorische und ~adttkritische Untersuchungen zur Entwicklung
und Systematik der 'Ibadat, I, Das ramacjan-Fasten (Wiesbaden, 1979);
a review by G. R. Hawting appeared in BSOAS 44 (1981): 364-66.
F. Meier's "Bakka:,': EI(2}, I: 959-61, is an excellent article on weep-
ing. For early pious Muslims see also W. Montgomery Watt, "Ahl al-
Suffa," EI(2}, I: 266-67, and C. Pellat, "Amir b. 'Abd al-Qais al-
'Anbari," EI(2}, I: 441. Aspects of early Muslim and Christian piety
were coordinated on pages 124 to 133 of G. E. von Grunebaum's
Medieval Islam (Chicago, 1954).
The best work on early Muslim mysticism relating it to contem-
porary Christian attitudes is M. Smith's Rabi'a the Mystic and Her
Fellow-Saints in Islam (Cambridge, 1928) and her Studies in Early
Mysticism in the Near and Middle East (London, 1931), which has
been republished as The Way of the Mystics: The Early Christian
Mystics and the Rise of the Sufis (London, 1976). The most recent
general study of Islamic mysticism is A. Schimmel's The Mystical
Dimensions of Islam (Chapel Hill, 1975).
Muslims: Doctrines of Authority and Rebellion
Modern Western treatments of the early history of Islamic doctrines
have tended to treat them as a monolithic body of ideas, to allow later
Sunni doctrines to determine the issues in a teleological way, to apply
Christian terms and definitions to them, to regard them as a form of
intellectual history with no social or political context, to see their
starting point in logical contradictions contained in the Qur'an, and
to assign their inspiration to ideas coming from other religious tra-
ditions through debate between Muslims and non-Muslims. The main