92 r Yehoshua Frenkel
this secret knowledge. Moreover, they are portrayed as adversaries who
deny the mission of God’s Messenger (rasul Allah) and even as the open
enemies of his mission.^11
One example of this representation of the Jews is the story about the en-
counter between Muhammad and ̔Abd Allah b. Sallam (of Qaynuqa ̔).^12
The story recounts that this Jewish leader warned the Prophet that the
Jews were a sort of people who would not hesitate to voice false accusa-
tions (buht).^13 Another example is the story of Muhammad’s birth. The
Jews knew it would happen in Arabia but plotted to assassinate the new-
born.^14 A third example used by Muslim authors to advance their claim
that in closed circles Jews and Christians retained and transmitted secret
information concerning the coming of the Prophet is the story about the
monk Bahira.^15 In this story the monk recognizes the seal of the prophet-
hood on Muhammad’s back.^16
Narratives of Conquests
The advance of Muslim armies from Arabia northward toward the Byz-
antine territories during the last years of the Prophet’s life and immedi-
ately following his death (in 632) is described in great detail in several
Islamic chronicles. In these accounts the other type of representation of
the People of the Book in the Islamic sources often appears, namely their
support of the advancing Islamic armies.^17 For example, a version of the
conquest of Caesarea by Mu ̔awiya contains a sub-narrative in which the
Muslim commander ensures the welfare of a local Jew who in return leads
the Muslims into the city through a secret gateway.^18
Another salient topic in the biography of Muhammad and the accounts
of the advance of Islam is the legal measures taken by the Muslim leader-
ship, who are said to have inserted certain provisions into the treaties of
surrender that aimed to safeguard the status of the “People of the Book.”
Early examples to this are the supposed agreements between Muhammad
and the Jews of Arabia. Muslim writers treating this issue claimed that the
Prophet exempted the Jews of the Khaybar Oasis from paying the poll tax
(jizya).^19
Another related issue is the accords that are said to have been agreed
upon between the Muslim commanders and the population of the con-
quered lands. Several narratives on the Islamic conquests (futuhat) incor-
porate what are known as ̔Umar’s stipulations (shuruht),^20 which were