104 r Yehoshua Frenkel
conquered in the early years of the caliphate. It would be extremely difficult to accept this
early date. See Milka Levy-Rubin, “Shurut ̔Umar and Its Alternatives: The Legal Debate
on the Status of the Dhimmis,” JSAI 30 (2005): 170–206.
- A. Noth, “Abgrenzungsprobleme zwischen Muslimen und Nicht-Muslimen: Die
Bedinungen Umars unter einem anderen Aspekt gelesen,” JSAI 9 (1987): 290–315; Eng-
lish translation in R. Hoyland, Muslims and Others in Early Islamic History (Aldershot:
Ashgate, 2002), 103–24. Mark R. Cohen, “What Was the Pact of ̔Umar? A Literary-
Historical Study,” JSAI 23 (1999): 101–57, edited a Mamluk version of the pact. - Nur al-Din ̔Ali b. Burhan al-Din al-Halabi (ah 975–1044), Insan al- ̔uyun fi sirat
al-amin al-ma’mun [al-Sira al-Halabiyya] (Cairo, 1964), 351; al-Tabari, Ta’rikh, 1: 2405;
Ibn al-Jawzi, Muntazam 4:43 (ah 15); Izz al-Din Ibn al-Athir (1160–1233), al-Kamil fi al-
ta’rikh (Beirut: Dar Sadir, 1966), 2:499–500. - Al-Baladhuri, Futuh al-Buldan, 110–12, 130, 135. The complicated relations be-
tween these two leaders are beyond the scope of the present study. See M. J. Kister, “On
the Papyrus of Wahb b. Munabbih,” BSOAS 37 (1974): 545–71. - Michael A. Cook, “The Origin of Kalam,” BSOAS 43 (1980): 33; Josef Van Ess,
“Political Ideas in Early Islamic Religious Thought,” British Journal of Middle Eastern
Studies 28 (2001): 153–56. - Cf. the graffiti: “I believe that there is no god except Him in whom the children
of Israel believed (Quran 10:90) [believing as] a Muslim hanif nor am I among the poly-
theists (Quran 3: 67).” Fred McGraw Donner, “Some Early Arabic Inscription from al-
Hanakiyya, Saudi Arabia,” JNES 43 (1984): 185; an anti-Umayyad report blaming them
for painting the wall of the Dome of the Rock with frescos representing human figures,
as churches are decorated. Abu al-Fida Isma ̔il Ibn Kathir (701–74/1301–73), al-Bidaya
wa-al-nihaya (Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al- ̔ilmiya, 2001), 8:288 (ah 96). - Frederick M. Denny, “Ummah in the Constitution of Medina,” Journal of Near
Eastern Studies 36 (1977): 43; R. B. Serjeant, “The Sunnah Jami ̔ah, Pacts with the Yathrib
Jews, and the ‘Tahrim’ of Yathrib: Analysis and Translation of the Documents Com-
prised in the So-called Constitution of Medina,” BSOAS 41 (1978): 12–15; Uri Rubin, “The
‘Constitution of Medina’: Some Notes,” Studia Islamica 62 (1985): 13–16. - Quran, 49: 14, 6: 82, 33: 35; Dimitry Baramki, “al-Nuqush al- ̔arabiyya fi al-badiya
al-shamiya,” al-Abhath 17 (1964): 335 (no. 67: ll. 6–7); Moshe Sharon, “Arabic Inscrip-
tions from Rehovoth and Sinai,” Israel Exploration Journal 43 (1993): 55–56; Abu Bakr
Muhammad ibn al-Tayyib al-Baqillani (d. 1015), al-Insaf fima yajibu i ̔tiqaduhu wala
yajuza al-jahlu bihi, ed. I. A. Haydar (Beirut, 1986), 89–90. - Cf. l. 3 in the inscriptions on the inner octagonal arcadec of Qubbat al-Sakhra
in Jerusalem (72/692). C. Kessler, “Abd al-Malik’s Inscription in the Dome of the Rock,”
JRAS (1970): 2–14; Estelle Whelan, “Forgotten Witness: Evidence for the Early Codi-
fication of the Qur’an,” JAOS 118 (1998): 4. The inscription evidently reflects the early
Umayyads’ image of Islam. - Robert G. Hoyland, “Writing the Biography of the Prophet Muhammad: Prob-
lems and Solutions,” History Compass 5 (2007): 11. - Referring to the Quran, Al ̔Imran, 3:144, al-Ahzab, 33:40; ̔Abd Allah ibn Mubarak
al-Marvazi (736–97), Kitab al-zuhd wal-raqa’iq, ed. Habib al-Rahman al- ̔Azami (Beirut,