30 r Brannon Wheeler
with the locations through which Moses led the Israelites, and Yāqūt al-
ludes to the Valley of Tuwwā near Mecca in Q 20:12 and 79:16 as the loca-
tion where Moses is supposed to have received the tablets of the Torah.^32
The identification of the Meccan sanctuary as the “maqām Ibrāhīm” dis-
places the rabbinic association of “ha-maqōm” in Genesis 22:4 with the
future temple in Jerusalem. The cultic function of the Meccan sanctuary
precedes and, later under the custodianship of the prophet Muhammad,
supersedes the cult of the Israelite temple in Jerusalem.
Other Ancient and Arab Prophets
The activities linked to locations and objects associated with Muhammad
and pre-Islamic prophets like Moses and Abraham are consistent with the
evidence found in inscriptions throughout the late antique and ancient
Mediterranean and Near East. In focusing on the connection between
prophethood and the founding of sanctuaries, Muslim exegetes were
able to draw upon a rich pre-Islamic tradition linking religious figures
and enclosed or protected locations. Several Aramaic inscriptions from
the northern Arabian city of Tayma refer to a hgr’ dedicated to Manat
[mnwh], “the goddess of goddesses.”^33 An Aramaic inscription from Car-
thage mentions the hgr’ as the boundary enclosing the hill upon which
were built the sanctuaries of Ashtart [ ̔štrt] and Tanith [tnt], and a Naba-
taean inscription describes part of a tomb as a hgry or “protected” for
those who dedicated it.^34 A Thamudic inscription appears to link a hgr
directly with a figure responsible for a protected sanctuary [dh’lhrm].^35
Other inscriptions, using terms associated with activities in the Quran,
attest to sanctuaries and enclosures dedicated by particular individuals.
A Hatran inscription engraved on a plaque dedicates a dwelling [mškn],
a protected place [htm], and a catalog of other items.^36 Another Aramaic
inscription from Tayma marks a special stone as dedicated to Manat, the
“goddess of goddesses.”^37 A Minaean inscription designates a particular
location as “protected” [hm], and a Lihyanite inscription marks a tomb
[qbr] as protected [hm]. The generic term for “place” [’tr] is also attested
as being used to designate sacred or protected locations. A Palmyrene
inscription refers to “Allāt the lordess of the place” [rbt ’l’tr],^38 and a Naba-
taean inscription, from Elus on the road between Petra and Gaza, marks a
special place [znh ’tr’] established by Notairu “for the life of Aretas king of