PHILOSOPHICAL VIEWS AND POLITICAL THEORY 211dividual to the dictates of reason, and, thereby, the full recognition of
his moral obligations. It is "the recognition of moral necessity, the
victory of moral necessity over physical necessity." 1 Basically, this
implies the recognition and acceptance of an individual's obligations
towards God, himself, and fellow men. "Not simple freedom is given
to man, but a freedom of obligation, freedonl with a debt, with limits,
with obligations and these obligations are as natural to man as freedom
itself." 2 The "ratification" of this recognition held mutually by all
men in a group is the basis of society. Speransky rejected the strictly
utilitarian and atomistic approach to society and government. He
refused to accept individual rights (in our usual "liberal" meaning of
the term) and their guaranty as an adequate foundation for social life
and as a goal of political action. 3 He applied this attitude to his
analysis and proposals concerning the social structure which underlay
his Plan of 1809. His was an ideal of solidarity and interaction, the
rejection of the absolute "rights" of isolated individuals and the claims
of private material interests; he stressed the spiritual, moral, and reli-
gious purposes and value of society. Thus Speransky was prepared to
be receptive to the political ideas of a Herder, Burke, vom Stein based
on the notions of social harmony and solidarity, the organic develop-
ment and unity of institutions, the creative role of history and national
character. 4 We have seen some illustrations of this approach in ear-
lier discussions of his administrative reform projects. What were the
theoretical foundations of his political proposals?
Speransky's interest in political questions went far back in his life.
As early as his 19th year, in one of the first sermons he delivered as a
student at the theological seminary in St. Petersburg, he dealt with
the problem of kingship and the role of government in society. The
theme for the sermon was St. Luke, Ch. 5, lO: "Fear not; from hence-
forth thou shalt catch men." In quaint, semi-biblical, but powerful
language Speransky set forth a basically ethical and religious approach
to political rule. Government rests on laws, but these laws are only
the outcome of the moral needs of men, needs brought about by man's
corruption through a variety of passions, vices, appetites. Political
power must be exercised with this basic situation fully in view. A
glorious reign, successful wars, and efficient government are of no
1 Ibid.
2 Speranskii, "Volia," Pamiati. p. 780; "Svoboda," lac. cit., p. 830.
3 Speranskii, "Tsel' obshchezhitiia," Pamiati, p. 828.
4 I have attempted to trace the sources of Speransky's thought in Part 3 of my
article: "The Philosophical Views of Count M. M. Speransky," Slavonic & East
Europ. Review, XXXI, No. 77 (June 1953) pp. 446-451 passim.