cave dwelling 223
Finally, some scholars have linked the movement into caves to climatic change. In
the last ice age (c 24 000–10 000 bce) populations in many parts of the world, includ-
ing the Mediterranean retreated into caves to escape the cold. In the Bronze Age, as
warmer conditions returned, people moved into above-ground dwellings. In the
early Middle Ages, starting in the eighth or ninth centuries, temperatures rose, lead-
ing to drought conditions and the desertification of some regions of the Mediterranean.
In such an environment, caves were a good choice since they provided both reliable
water sources and thermic stability for people, animals, and foodstuffs (Maglio, 2003:
112–117; Laureano, 1993: 71, 109; Messina, 2008: 9).
In the end, coming up with broad generalizations applicable to different localities
with diverse histories can be difficult. The populations of different regions did not
always have the same motivations for moving into caves. Moreover, dating rupestrian
structures has proven to be notoriously difficult, with scholars proposing wildly dif-
ferent chronologies for cave structures and settlements. For southern Italy, cave living
has been associated with both the end of the Roman empire in the fifth and sixth
centuries, motivated by security reasons, and with the Byzantine reconquest of the
ninth and tenth centuries, spurred on by agricultural expansion and the repopulation
of lands (Fonseca, 1988: 12; Lavermicocca, 1977: 137; Maglio, 2003: 121–130). In
Sicily, some scholars believe the movement to caves took place with the beginning of
Arab incursions in the seventh century, while others link it to the era of Berber colo-
nization beginning in the ninth century, viewing cave living as an import from North
Africa (Giglio, 2002: 5–6; Messina, 2008: 28–29). Since the motivations for moving
into caves are closely linked to historical events, as scholars are able to date troglodytic
settlements and structures with more precision, it will be necessary to revisit the
reasons for the renaissance in cave living in the medieval era.
The morphology of cave villagesTroglodyte settlements came in many shapes and sizes. Some included only a single,
isolated residence, presumably inhabited by a hermit; some contained small clusters of
residences; others were true villages with residences, religious houses, and communal
spaces. In southern Italy, the cave village of Gravina della Madonna della Scala in
Massafra contained between 150 and 200 residential units carved out on seven differ-
ent levels. In addition to the residences, the settlement included churches, a pharmacy
that produced medicine from herbs, and a canal system for the collection and distribu-
tion of rainwater (dell’Aquila, 2004: 50–54; Allen, 1969: 51–54; Fonseca, 1988:
29–31; Caprara, 2001: 85–91). Gravina di Puglia was another example of a multi-
storey troglodyte settlement with numerous residences, churches, storerooms, stalls,
pigeon houses, and canals for collecting and transporting water (Fonseca, 1988:
104–105). In some cases large cut-rock cities arose with hundreds and even thou-
sands of inhabitants. Matera, one of the largest and most famous troglodyte cities,
awed medieval and early modern visitors with its size, beauty, and unique architecture.
Its houses were built on top of one another, with the roofs forming a system of streets
running through the city. Staircases were dug into the rock as well. The residents
placed hanging gardens outside of their homes and created terraces for agricultural
and pastoral activities. They also built a sophisticated water management system for
collecting, draining, and storing water (Laureano, 1993: 109–155).