cave dwelling 229
raising of livestock, hunting, and the collection of fruits and nuts in forests (Caprara,
2001: 225–37; Dell’Aquila, 2004: 53). The settlements themselves featured commu-
nal spaces for food production, preparation, and storage. Some contained communal
ovens to bake bread and other foods or had rooms dedicated to making olive oil and
wine, or grinding grain (Lavermicocca, 1977: 36–37; Messina, 2008: 34–36; Caprara
and Dell’Aquila, 2004: 465–467). Gardens were grown near the residences, and in
some places there is evidence of bee-keeping (Uggeri, 1974: 229; Caprara, 2001: 76;
Putignano, 2004: 155). Pigeons were raised for guano to fertilize crops, and in
Massafra it is likely that sewage was transported up cliffs to be used as fertilizer on the
fields above (Caprara, 2001: 150–151; Allen, 1969: 52).
Troglodyte villages also included spaces for artisanal activity. Cave settlements in
Puglia grew mulberry bushes for cultivating silkworms (Putignano, 2004: 154–155).
Spaces dedicated to rope making, cloth making, and leather tanning have been identi-
fied. Ceramic production took place in some of the troglodyte villages, and pharma-
cies for producing herbal medicines were found in others (Caprara, 2001: 259–263;
Messina, 2008: 36; Uggeri, 1974: 229–230). A Jewish colony of cloth dyers lived in
the rupestrian village of La Lama del Fullonese (Caprara, 2001: 155).
Located on or near roads, troglodyte settlements were not isolated or marginalized
but integrated into a larger socio-economic environment that included both rupes-
trian and above-ground settlements. In many cases they relied on the old Roman
network of roads, but in some cases new roads were built to connect the settlements
to fields, pastures, and sanctuaries (Caprara, 2001: 173–174). In southern Italy cave
villages and above-ground settlements had similar plans and shared the same urban
features, including roads, churches, staircases, cisterns and canals, cemeteries, and
defensive systems (Fonseca, 1988: 16–19). The similarities between troglodyte and
above-ground settlements have even caused some scholars in southern Italy and Sicily
to reject the idea of a troglodyte civilization (civiltà rupestre) that somehow differed
from that of other types of settlements. Cave living did not represent a different life-
style, but was merely an architectural choice. Troglodyte populations only differed in
the way in which they built their residences and communal spaces (Caprara, 2001:
124; Navedoro, 2006: 10–11).
The manor houses of Cappadocia similarly formed part of larger settlements that
included funerary churches, fortifications, farmland, and perhaps residences for the
local population or housing for dependents, servants, or workers. Manor houses were
located in prominent positions in the landscape, generally at the entrance to valleys
and on or near the important roads running through the province. They were built in
areas with ample sunlight and good access to fields, pastures, and waterways. They
served as focal points for the political, social, and military life of the region, function-
ing as look-out points and possibly providing military barracks and food supplies for
imperial armies passing through (Kalas, 2000: 60–61, 166–167; Ousterhout, 2005:
142, 170–171, 182–183).
In all regions of the Mediterranean, the creation of cave houses and underground
dwellings was not regressive or primitive, but a viable alternative to free-standing
masonry or wooden buildings in areas with the right conditions. Creating troglodyte
settlements required a high level of skill and technological knowledge as well as a
good understanding of the environment. Troglodyte and hypogeal structures were
effective solutions for meeting the environmental and climatic challenges of the