148 Ann E. Killebrew
collection of small, but powerful, independent kingdoms in the northern Levant and
Mesopotamia, including one centered at Damascus and reaching as far north as Sam’al
(Zincirli). During the early centuries of the first millennium, they continued to be
depicted as adversaries of the Neo-Assyrians. The Aramaeans were eventually subjugated
and absorbed into the Assyrian Empire, where their language gradually becomes the
lingua francaof the region (see Younger 2007: 134–7, 154–62 for a detailed discussion
and summary of the textual evidence).
In the biblical account, the Aramaeans made their first appearance in the Book of Gen-
esis when Abraham’s servant traveled to Aram-Naharaim (“Aram between the rivers”)
of the Aramaeans to search for a wife for Isaac (e.g., Genesis 24:10; 25:20). Among the
most well-known biblical references is Deuteronomy 26:5, which declares “my father was
a wandering Aramaean.” These verses tying the Aramaeans to the Patriarchal narratives
are somewhat surprising, considering that they are generally portrayed in the Bible as
enemies of Iron Age Israel (see, e.g., II Samuel 8, 10 and I Kings 11). Though most
scholars consider references relating to pre-monarchic Israel as anachronistic, they do
seem to preserve earlier traditions regarding previous Aramaean habitations in upper
Mesopotamia (see, e.g., Millard 1980).
As with other second millennium semi-nomadic pastoral tribal groups, early scholarship
depicted the Aramaeans as one of several waves of ethnic nomadic hoards emerging from
the desert steppe that invaded sedentary population centers of the Fertile Crescent. More
recent research emphasizes the diverse character of these tribes, who were later grouped
together under the general rubric “Aramaic.” Key to the formation of Iron Age Aramaic
kingdoms were new socioeconomic conditions following the crisis that impacted New
Kingdom Egypt and the Hittite Empire at the end of the Late Bronze Age (see Younger
2007: 131–2). By the Iron Age, these formerly semi-nomadic peoples were perceived in
both Assyrian and biblical texts as constituting a specific population entity, unified by a
common language and heritage, with shared kinship ties. No distinctive material culture
can be associated with the Aramaeans. Their ethnogenesis, from an amorphous collection
of tribes with a shared lifestyle to one of numerous first millenniumBCEpopulation
groups who have often been ethnically defined, parallels the emergence of early Israel
(see the following text).
Second MillenniumBCEPeoples of the Levant
Late Bronze Age textual sources and the Hebrew Bible, the latter largely redacted dur-
ing the second half of the first millenniumBCE, provide the starting point regarding
groups who inhabited the Levant during the second millenniumBCE. Three peoples in
particular—the Canaanites, Philistines, and Israelites—have been the focus of intense
scholarly attention, including a plethora of studies addressing their historicity, origins,
and ethnicity.
Akkadian, Egyptian, Ugaritic, Phoenician/Punic, and Hebrew texts mention
individuals—Canaanites—who reside in a region they all refer to as Canaan. Among
the most important of these second millennium documents are those from Mari,
Alalakh, Ugarit, and Egypt, and later biblical traditions. Not surprisingly, the place name
Canaan—encompassing much of the Levant under New Kingdom Egyptian imperial