318 Gocha R. Tsetskhladze
In the next wave of Ionian colonization (560–530BC), in response to the first phases of
Persian conquest of Asia Minor, Miletus founded Odessos in the west, and other Greek
cities on that shore expanded and spawned many small settlements. In the north, Olbia
had come to include Berezan and, at mid-century, Tyras and Nikonian were established,
plus some 50 settlements forming theirchorai; and in the Cimmerian Bosporus, Gorgip-
pia, Toricos, Akra, Porthmeus, and Iluration. Miletus looked further afield to Colchis,
founding Phasis, Gyenos, and Dioscurias, plus lesser settlements at Pichvnari and Tsikhis-
dziri. Other Greek cities, though on a smaller scale, partook in this wave—Megarians
and Boeotians settled Heraclea on the southern Black Sea in 554BC; the Teians founded
Phanagoria on the Taman peninsula (ca. 542BC) and Abdera in Thrace at roughly the
same time. A small, probably Ionian, settlement was made on the future site of Cherson-
esus. A final wave of Ionian penetration of the Black Sea again saw a mixture of expansion
of existing cities and the establishment of new ones—Mesambria, by the Chalcedonians
and Byzantines fleeing at the time of the Revolt (Hdt. 6.33); Kerkinitis and Kalos Limen
in the western Crimea.
This brief excursus demonstrates how heavily the Black Sea was settled by the Greeks.
Athenian interest, and possibly settlement, in the Black Sea arose around the middle of the
fifth centuryBC, increasing markedly from the last quarter of that century. According to
Seneca (Helv. 7.21), there were 75 settlements; Pliny numbers them at 90 (NH5.112).
However, most of them were secondary colonies or later foundations. Those established
in the Archaic period numbered about two dozen. Some colonies were already establish-
ing their own sub-colonies in the sixth centuryBC, such as Sinope at Cotyora, Cerasus,
and Trapezus (Tsetskhladze 2009: 232–39); and, in the last quarter of the fifth cen-
turyBC, Heraclea Pontica founded Tauric Chersonesus in the Crimea and Callatis on the
western coast (Avram 2009).
What were relations like between the Greeks and locals in the Archaic and Classical
periods? In general, peaceable: they can be characterized as more collaborative than
antagonistic. From the first, arriving Greeks had to strike up somemodus vivendiwith the
people already there. It should be underlined, and the archaeological material demon-
strates this, that in all parts of the Black Sea local people formed part of the population of
the Greek settlementsab initio(Tsetskhladze 1998: 44–50, 2004). Another significant
feature is that, with few exceptions (see the text that follows), Greek cities lacked fortifi-
cation walls until the Classical period—and even then we have no evidence of a serious
worsening of relations with the locals. At least, this is the case for Ionian colonies, the
preponderant type (in Dorian areas relations appear to have been less cordial). Attacks
on Greek cities by locals, as with their practicing piracy, date mainly to the Hellenistic
period and later.
About nine local settlements of the northern Black Sea littoral, many of them set deep
in the hinterland several hundred kilometers from the coast, all of them tribal political
centers, have yielded East Greek pottery dated to the last quarter of the seventh century,
which is when the first Greek colonies were established. Surely this demonstrates that
the first Greeks immediately sought out the locals to establish friendly relations, making
them gifts of valuable prestige goods, namely pottery (Tsetskhladze 2012a: 354–7)? An
interesting point arises: why did the Greeks journey so far inland? Most of these settle-
ments were on the Upper South Bug, the Middle Dnieper, and in the Vorskla basin. It
is now becoming more widely accepted that the coastal areas of the northwestern Black