418 Nancy T. de Grummond
Of course, cattle could have come to Italy from the area of Turkey almost any time in
history, and even in Etruscan times could have been brought on the ships of others,
such as the Ionian Greeks. Another inquiry analyzing 80 samples of human bone from
cemeteries in Etruria and in the Po Valley and Campania found that internal genetic
diversity was low and that Etruscan DNA resembled most the DNA of modern Tuscany,
but that it could not be linked conclusively with ancient populations (Vernesi et al.
2004). The validity of the samples was criticized, however, on the grounds that post
mortem changes in ancient DNA might lead to erroneous correlations. A later study
(Achilli et al. 2007) relied on a dramatic title to attract public attention, announcing
that the study of modern Tuscan DNA proved a Near Eastern origin, but the actual
reported results only weakly supported the claim. With the study of ancient DNA
in its infancy, there are still problems about contamination of samples, the stability
of the specimens and questions as to whether studies are trustworthy. It has become
clear that the lack of established procedures among scientists themselves and the lack
of collaboration so far between the scientists and archaeologists are a hindrance to
clear thinking on the issues. As Perkins puts it in his superb review of this highly
controversial topic, “The investigation of Etruscan ancient DNA has barely started”
(Perkins 2009: 107).
Others in Etruria
As occurs in any culture, there were members of Etruscan society who were foreigners.
This large and complex topic can be treated only briefly here. It is sometimes assumed
that there were Greeks present in Etruscan cities, because, for example, cultural objects of
high quality would “logically” have been made by immigrant Greeks. Often cited is the
story of the Greek Demaratus, an exile from Corinth who came to Tarquinia attended by
three artisans—Eucheir, Diopos, and Eugrammos—to whom were attributed the inven-
tion of modeling in clay (Pliny,Natural History35.152). Their names are generic and
may be translated as “Goodhand,” “Deadeye,” and “Goodpainter,” leading to suspicion
that this aspect of the tale of Demaratus should not be taken too literally. In fact, the
names of Greek artists on works made in Etruria are quite rare. There are two inscrip-
tions with signatures, naming the artists Arnth Praxias and Metru, both on vases painted
in the Greek red-figure style of the fifth centuryBCE(neither of exceptional quality), one
found at Vulci, the other at Populonia but thought to have been made at Vulci (Colonna
2005 [1975], 1801–4). Greek presence tended to be strongest at such coastal cities as
Tarquinia, Vulci, and Populonia.
As for other Greeks integrated into Etruscan society, once again the Demaratus story
is considered paradigmatic. This wealthy merchant settled and married an Etruscan
wife, begetting Tarquinius, the first Etruscan king of Rome (Livy, Book 1; Dionysios
of Halikarnassos 3.46.5). A real-life counterpart to the legendary Demaratus was the
sixth-century merchant Sostratos who dedicated a stone anchor to Apollo in a Greek
sanctuary at Graviscae, the port of Tarquinia (Torelli 1971). But he probably did not
live in Etruria, and of Greek inhabitants with names in Etruscan format there is so
far relatively little evidence. From Tarquinia comes a name Rutile Hipukrates (i.e.,
the Greek name Hippokrates; Rutile is in fact a Latin name), written on the base of a