26 Harald Haarmann
and eventually replace it. In fact, Latin is saturated with elements of Etruscan. Etruscan
was the vehicle of a sophisticated and influential civilization that had flourished even
before the Romans became civilized. This instance of non-Indo-European language over-
shadowing an Indo-European language makes the Etruscan–Roman contacts in ancient
Italy unique.
An indication of the fusion that took place is the fact that Etruscan not only infil-
trated the Latin lexicon but also penetrated its grammatical structures. In the cultural
vocabulary of Latin, many Etruscan expressions are preserved, as lexical borrowings. A
selection of direct borrowings, by no means complete, would include:Aprilis“April,”
atrium“forecourt,”autumnus“autumn,”bura“plough beam,”caelum“sky,”caeri-
monia“ceremony,”calceus“shoe,”calpar“wine jar,”cisterna“cistern,”coleus“testi-
cle,”columna“column,”fenestra“window,”genista“broom,”lamina“blade,”lanius
“butcher,”lucerna“lamp,”miles“soldier,”mundus“world,”obscenus“ominous,”popu-
lus“people,”pulcher“pretty,”puteus“well,”taberna“inn, shop,”tellus“earth,”titulus
“label,”triumphus“triumph,”tuba“trumpet,”turris“tower,”tutulus“priest’s cap,”
urceus“pitcher,”urna“urn,”vagina“vagina,”voltur“vulture” (Ostler 2007: 323).
Etruscan also left traces in the linguistic architecture of Latin. Latin numbering, for
example, reflects Etruscan influence. As with the Etruscans, the Romans expressed 18
as “two less than 20” (Latin:duodeviginti; Etruscan:esl-em zathrum),and19as“one
less than 20” (Latin:undeviginti; Etruscan:thu-em zathrum) (see Haarmann 2008: 106
ff., for Etruscan calques in Latin).
Another area of Etruscan influence is to be found in Roman nomenclature. The
Roman system for naming individuals deviates markedly from the conventions in other
Indo-European languages, and it has been suggested that the Romans adopted their
threefold system from the Etruscans. This system is characterized by the combination
of a praenomen (“forename”), a nomen (“name”) or gentilicium, and a cognomen
“nickname; additional name.” The praenomen was the individual’s personal name, the
nomen represented the name of the clan or lineage to which a person belonged, and
the cognomen made reference to a specific family within the clan. Thetrianomina
marked its bearer as a free Roman citizen (Ostler 2007: 41). In addition to the system
of name-giving and its infrastructure, the Romans also adopted name forms of Etruscan
origin. Among such names are those of famous Roman citizens such as Caesar and
Cicero. Caesar’s name is associated with the town of Caere (Etruscan Caisr). This
association was established at the times of the Punic wars when one of Caesar’s ancestors
entertained political ties with the city as an ally against the Carthaginians.
Among the words that Latin borrowed from Etruscan are key terms relating to vari-
ous institutions of the Roman state. One was political power, and its organization and
manifestation in the legal system. In addition to direct borrowings, Latin absorbed many
Etruscan elements in translation. The most visible icon of the early Roman state seems
to be an adaptation of Etruscan terminology: Latinres publica“republic,” translation of
Etruscanmekh rasnal“league of the people” (Rix 1984: 466). The Romans learned the
business of administration from the Etruscans. The magistrate (Latinmagister populi)
derived from the office of the Etruscanmacstarna, and the Romans also adopted the