436 Erich S. Gruen
Hall, Jonathan M. 1997.Ethnic Identity in Greek Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press. Although dealing neither with Romans nor with Jews, this work set the parameters of
discussion for most subsequent studies of ethnic identity in the ancient world.
Isaac, Benjamin. 2004.The Invention of Racism in Classical Antiquity. Princeton: Princeton Uni-
versity Press. The most comprehensive study by far of ethnic animosities and proto-racist atti-
tudes in the ancient world, with a lengthy chapter on Roman ideas about Jews.
Schäfer, Peter. 1997.Judeophobia: Attitudes toward the Jews in the Ancient World. Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press. Makes a powerful and sustained case that hostility to Jews among the
ancients stemmed from a combination of fear and hatred, based on ethnic resentment.
Smith, Anthony D. 1986.The Ethnic Origins of Nations. Oxford: Blackwell. A classic work by a
sociologist whose formulation of collective ethnic constructs by nations has had wide influence
on scholarship in classical antiquity.