Ethnicity and Gender 493formal symbols of Roman citizenship and Roman culture, such as Roman dress, names,
and language, for men than for women. These were important signifiers of social and
legal status and were thus essential for maintaining or enhancing standing within the
local community.
Conclusions
This is a necessarily brief overview of a large and complex subject. Even so, it is clear
that there is considerable variation between ethnic groups in the ways in which gender
and ethnic identities interacted, and in the ways in which gender modified responses to
cultural change. There are important differences between Italian cultures and societies
in the ways in which gender and ethnicity interact. This may sound like a very obvious
statement, given that ancient Italy was a culturally and ethnically diverse region, but
there has been a strong tendency for discussions of gender to focus mainly on Romans
and Etruscans, and it is important to remember that these are not necessarily typical of
all Italian societies. The contrast between northern Italy, where women seemed to be
represented in a very ethnically distinctive fashion, and parts of southern Italy, where
they were ethnically invisible, is a clear demonstration of this.
Another significant point is that the interface between gender, social power, and ethnic
identity changes significantly over time. In archaic Italy, for instance, elite kinship groups
exercised a high degree of political and social dominance in most Italian societies. Women
who belonged to these elites had a high profile and exercised considerable influence as
members of the ruling families, but this may have declined as these restricted elites lost
their monopoly on power. By the early empire, women in Italy still had a limited public
role as priestesses and could act as civic patrons or benefactors but had a much lower pub-
lic profile that that of men. Nevertheless, gender was a significant factor in the formation
and maintenance of communal identities, particularly in contexts where these were fairly
fluid—for instance, in a newly founded colony. The role of women in shaping both reli-
gious and family identities was particularly important in situations of intermarriage and
mixed communities. Overall, the impact of Roman conquest on the relationship between
gender and ethnicity seems to have been profound. From the second centuryBConward,
the new symbols of power and status were Roman. The adoption of these by elite men
throughout Italy meant that the representations of powerful men were almost exclusively
Roman, and visible ethnic differences disappeared.
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