Ancient Ethnicity and Modern Identity 67as mutable. In the following text, I will present an overview of these models and assess
them as well as their impact within Classical Studies.
A Note on Terminology and Definitions
Ethnicity, like culture, is a notoriously elusive and contested concept. It is invested with
a wide variety of meanings. We elaborate on ethnicity by interpreting cultural traits such
as: (1) a collective name; (2) a common myth of descent; (3) a shared history; (4) a
distinctive shared culture (which may be articulated through language, religion, customs,
institutions, laws, folklore, architecture, dress, food, music, or art); (5) an association with
a specific territory; and (6) a sense of solidarity (Smith 1986: 22–30). However, none of
the traits are universal. That is, not one of them is always invested with ethnic sentiments.
Ethnicity is articulated through different channels in different contexts. Propositions for
definitions of ethnicity are, therefore, easily invalidated. Consequently, defining ethnicity
has a very limited heuristic value and calls for more exact definitions of ethnicity are
problematic (see the debate between Hall 1998a and Jones 1998).
The modern terminology derives from the ancient Greek wordethnos, which had var-
ious meanings: for instance, in Homer (The Illiad2.87, 4.59–69, 12.330), it denotes
“swarms” or “flocks of animals”; in Sophocles (Antigone 344), it denotes “wild ani-
mals,” whereas Herodotus (Histories 1.101) uses it to denote “nation” or “people.” It
is also hard to present a clear definition for the ancientethnos. Ancient and modern terms
are occasionally conflated in elaborations on classical antiquity. It is not my intention
to establish the exact relation between the two, and as the title suggests I will focus on
modern conceptualizations, meanings, and uses of “ethnicity.” For me, this cluster of
terms denotes phenomena, processes, and discourses associated with the articulation of
an identity based on a perceived notion of a common past.
Primordial Legacies and Race Theories
Ethnic sentiments can be strong. For some people, the affiliation with their ethnic
group is stronger than other social ties. Ethnic groups have, therefore, been likened
to extended families. Ethnic identity is viewed as a given, primordial dimension of our
lives. Ethnic identity has a determining quality. These discursive assumptions are the
foundations of the primordial perspective, which is an offspring of the race theories that
flourished in Western intellectual life c. 1850–1950. During the nineteenth century,
the past was increasingly conceptualized as consisting of monolithic, bounded, and
immutable nations. According to this view, a people retains a core of essential traits
throughout history. The notion of origins was of fundamental importance in these
discourses. Not only was it important to establish the origins of a people, but also to
push the origins of it as far back as possible. The length of continuity that a people laid
claim to had a direct influence on the levels of credibility which others attributed to their
claims on a history or land. Accordingly, in nineteenth-century scientific discourses,
the notion of origins was imbued with explanatory powers. That is, a feature was often
explained with reference to the origin. For instance, the inner traits of a people, which