41 Amm., Hist. 28.1; they were followed by further trials at Antioch and elsewhere in the east:
for the issues involved, see Matthews, Roman Empire of Ammianus, 209–17; Antioch and
Scythopolis, 219–26. Ammianus on the cruelty of Valentinian, 29.3.8.
42 Amm., Hist. 31.1–4; so too Peter Heather, The Fall of the Roman Empire. A New History (Bas-
ingstoke: Macmillan, 2005), 151–67; see Chapter 2.
43 Amm., Hist. 31.12–13. See Matthews, Roman Empire of Ammianus, 167–89; Lenski, Failure of
Empire, 334–67; Michael Kulikowski, Rome’s Gothic Wars (Cambridge: Cambridge Univer-
sity Press, 2007), 137–43.
44 See Chapter 2; for a detailed introduction to the issues see Guy Halsall, Barbarian Migrations
and the Roman West (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 376–568; on Adriano-
ple and its antecedents, 165–80.
45 Key works include Walter Pohl, ed., Kingdoms of the Empire. The Integration of Barbarians in Late
Antiquity (Leiden: Brill, 1997); Walter Pohl with Helmut Reimitz, eds., Strategies of Distinction.
The Construction of the Ethnic Communities, 300–800 (Leiden, Brill, 1998); Patrick T. Geary,
The Myth of Nations. The Medieval Origins of Europe (Princeton: Princeton University Press,
2002); H.-W. Goetz, J. Jarnut and W. Pohl, eds., Regna and Gentes. The Relationship between Late
Antique and Early Medieval Peoples and Kingdoms in the Transformtion of the Roman World (Leiden:
Brill, 2003). Succinct statement of the issues with further bibliography in Rousseau, A Com-
panion to Late Antiquity, 373–75; further, Chapter 2.
46 See Heather, Empires and Barbarians, 16–21.
47 See below, Chapter 2.
48 See, for instance, Stephen Mitchell and Geoffrey Greatrex, eds., Ethnicity and Culture in Late
Antiquity (London and Swansea, 2000); Ralph Mathisen and Danuta Schanzer, eds., Romans,
Barbarians and the Transformation of the Roman World (Farnham: Ashgate, 2011).
49 Heather, Fall of the Roman Empire (Heather returns to the theme, with more discussion of
the revisionist approaches in Empires and Barbarians, asserting the greater importance of
‘development’ as opposed to ‘migration, but still emphasising the role of violence and the
key importance of the Huns); see also Ward-Perkins, The Fall of Rome. A stress on violence
rather than integration is also the theme of Brent D. Shaw, ‘War and violence’, in Bower-
sock, Brown and Grabar, eds., Late Antiquity, 130–69.
50 Themistius, Oration 16.210 b–c.
51 See Alan Cameron, ‘The last pagans of Rome’, in William V. Harris, ed., The Transforma-
tions of Urbs Roma in Late Antiquity (Portsmouth, RI: Journal of Roman Archaeology, 1999),
109–21; id., The Last Pagans of Rome (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010).
52 See Neil McLynn, Ambrose of Milan. Church and Court in a Christian Capital (Berkeley: Univer-
sity of California Press, 1994); J.H.W.G. Liebeschuetz, Ambrose of Milan. Political Letters and
Speeches, trans. with introduction and notes, with the assistance of Carole Hill, Translated
Texts for Historians 43 (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2005); however, see Alan
Cameron, The Last Pagans of Rome, 39–46 for a sceptical view of the supposed clash between
Symmachus and Ambrose.
53 On John Chrysostom see Wendy Mayer and Pauline Allen, eds., John Chrysostom (London:
Routledge, 2000); J.H.W.G. Liebeschuetz, Barbarians and Bishops. Army, Church and State in
the Age of Arcadius and Chrysostom (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990); on the importance of
preaching in this period, see Mary B. Cunningham and Pauline Allen, eds., Preacher and Audi-
ence. Studies in Early Christian and Byzantine Homiletics (Leiden: Brill, 1998).
54 For the laws dealing with heretics, for which a precedent had been set by legislation against
Manichaeism brought in by Diocletian and Maximian, see Caroline Humfress, Orthodoxy
and the Courts in Late Antiquity (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), 243–68. But the
legal evidence is diffi cult to use, and does not straightforwardly support the common view
that Christianity now became the only offi cial religion of the empire: see the excellent dis-
cussion by Neil McLynn, ‘Pagans in a Christian empire’, in Rousseau, ed., A Companion to
Late Antiquity, 572–87. Late Roman legislation and the law codes in particular have been the
subject of several important recent discussions: see in particular John F. Matthews, Laying
Down the Law. A Study of the Theodosian Code (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000); Jill
NOTES TO INTRODUCTION