39 (1985), 62–74; E. Chrysos, ‘Byzantine diplomacy, AD 300–800: means and ends’, in
J. Shepard and S. Franklin, eds., Byzantine Diplomacy (Aldershot: Ashgate, 1992), 25–39.
44 See on this J.H.W.G. Liebeschuetz, Barbarians and Bishops. Army, Church and State in the Age of
Arcadius and Chrysostom (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990), 32–47.
45 Jordanes, Get. 146.
46 Zos., New Hist. V.36; Oros., Hist. VII.38; tariff; Zos., New Hist. V.41.
47 Hydatius, Chron. 69.
48 So Wickham, The Inheritance of Rome, 102.
49 See Jones, Later Roman Empire, I, 249–53.
50 Walter A. Goffart, Barbarians and Romans, AS 418–584. The Techniques of Accommodation (Prin-
ceton: Princeton University Press, 1980); Wickham, Framing the Early Middle Ages, 84–87;
detailed discussion with bibliography in Halsall, Barbarian Migrations, 425–47.
51 See S.J.B. Barnish, ‘Taxation, land, and barbarian settlement’, Papers of the British School at
Rome 54 (1986), 170–95; J.H.W.G. Liebeschuetz, ‘Cities, taxes and the accommodation of
the barbarians: the theories of Durliat and Goffart’, in W. Pohl, ed., Kingdoms of the Empire.
The Integration of the Barbarians in Late Antiquity (Leiden: Brill, 1997), 135–51.
52 Wickham, Framing the Early Middle Ages, 86: ‘any model that supposes a smooth, merely
administrative, changeover does violence to the evidence we have for the confusion of the
fi fth century’.
53 Stephen Mitchell, A History of the Later Roman Empire, AD 284–641 (Oxford: Blackwell,
2007), 197.
54 Roger Collins, Early Medieval Europe 300–1000 (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1991).
55 See the excellent discussion by Andrew Fear, ‘War and society’, in Philip Sabin, Hans Van
Wees and Michael Whitby, eds., The Cambridge History of Greek and Roman Warfare II: Rome
from the Late Republic to the Late Empire (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007),
424–58. Ramsay MacMullen, Corruption and the Decline of Rome (New Haven: Yale University
Press, 1988), Appendix A, 201–4, lists barbarians in the Roman army and in Appendix
C, 209–17, instances of soldiers stationed in towns. Jones, Later Roman Empire, 606–86,
remains essential on the late Roman army.
56 See Benjamin Isaac, ‘The meaning of the terms “limes” and “limitanei” in ancient sources’,
Journal of Roman Studies 78 (1988), 125–47. They were not, as commonly supposed, a ‘peasant
militia’ of questionable effectiveness: cf. A.D. Lee, ‘Warfare and the state’, in Sabin, Van Wees
and Whitby, eds., The Cambridge History of Greek and Roman Warfare, II, 379–423, at 409.
57 For a generally positive view see now Hugh Elton, ‘Military forces’, in Sabin, Van Wees and
Whitby, The Cambridge History of Greek and Roman Warfare, eds., II, 270–309.
58 Jones, Later Roman Empire, 207–8, 629–30; good discussion of the cost of the army and the
implications of how soldiers were paid by Lee, ‘Warfare and society’, 401–412. M. Hendy,
Studies in the Byzantine Monetary Economy, c. AD 300–1450 (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1985), 164–8, computes the cost of Justinian’s army in North Africa on the basis of
the fi gures given in the sources, and see on the size of the late Roman army Warren Tread-
gold, Byzantium and its Army, 284–1081 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1995), 43–64;
however, it is a dangerous procedure to rely on fi gures in the sources, which are notoriously
unreliable: see Elton, ‘Military forces’, 284–86. For Justinian’s wars and battles see also
John Haldon, The Byzantine Wars (Stroud, 2001), 23–44.
59 So T.S. Parker, Romans and Saracens. A History of the Arabian Frontier (Winona Lake, Indi-
ana: American Schools of Oriental Research, 1986); The Roman Frontier in Central Jordan:
Interim Report on the Limes Arabicus Project 1980–1985 (Oxford, BAR, 1987); discussion in
Benjamin Isaac, ‘The army in the Late Roman East’, in Averil Cameron, ed., States, Resources
and Armies, the Byzantine and Early Islamic Near East III (Princeton: Darwin Press, 1995),
125–55, at 137–45.
60 Elton, ‘Military forces’, 293.
61 Contra G.E.M. de Ste Croix, The Class Struggle, in the Ancient Greek World. From the Archaic Age
to the Arab Conquests (London: Duckworth, 1981), 509–18; also Gibbon and many more
recent historians: on this see Lee, ‘Warfare and the state’, 417.
NOTES TO CHAPTER 2