170 EARLY MEDIEVAL SPAINimage may be truer of the later stages of Umayyad rule than of the
times of 'Abd al-RaQrnan I, but it is equally likely that many features
undelWent little change over the centuries.
At the head of the state stood the amir. Unlike the earlier gover-
nors or the Visigothic kings, the Umayyad amirs rarely led their ar-
mies in person, though often entrusting commands to their many
sons. They themselves usually remained in Cordoba, the 'Navel of Al-
Andalus', which replaced Seville as the capital of the Arab state early
in the time of the governors.^49 As all of the Spanish Umayyads, until
the accession of Hisham II in 976, succeeded as adults, they invariably
took a direct role in administration, making appointments and taking
all major decisions. Their life-style became increasingly magnificent,
culminating in the reign of 'Abd al-RaQrnan III (912-961), who built
the great palace complex of Medina Azahara outside Cordoba. 50 All
of the rulers were notable builders, and not just for themselves. From
the time of 'Abd al-RaQrnan I onwards, Cordoba was embellished with
a series of palaces, public baths, fountains and gardens. In addition,
and still extant, the Great Mosque of Cordoba was begun by the
founder of the dynasty, and extended and adorned by many of his
successors up to the late tenth century.51 Such lavish programmes of
public building are recorded almost exclusively in respect of Cordoba.
Elsewhere fortifications were erected by the Umayyad rulers, but their
munificence in other and more luxurious directions was reserved for
their capital.
As a dynasty the Spanish Umayyads were remarkably successful. Up
to the late tenth century each of them without exception appears in
the sources as a distinct and forceful personality. None of them can
be accused of incompetence or of military or political ineptitude.
Anecdotes record their determined style of rulership: in 781 an Abbasid
expedition, sent by the caliph AbuJa'far (754-775) to challenge 'Abd
al-RaQrnan I, was easily defeated and its leaders executed. 'In order
the better to strike terror into his enemies, 'Abd al-Ral,lman caused
labels, inscribed with the names of the deceased, to be suspended
from their ears; their heads were then stored in sealed bags, together
with the black banners of the house of 'Abbas, and the whole given
to a trusty merchant, who was directed to convey his cargo to Mecca,
and to deposit it in a public place at a certain time.' The caliph, then
on a pilgrimage to the holy city, there discovered the gruesome re-
mains of his commanders, and exclaimed of 'Abd al-RaQrnan: 'God
be praised for placing a sea between USf'52