THE ARAB CONQUEST 175limited issues of gold dinars, identical in design to the silver ones, in
the tenth century.
The law that was applied to Muslim subjects of the Umayyads was
that of the Qu'ran. Although many specific injunctions and regula-
tions were there laid down it was still necessary for them to be inter-
preted and for a class of professional jurists to exist to administer this
law. Rival schools of Islamic jurisprudence developed. In Al-Andalus,
thanks to the preference of the amir Hisham I, that of Malik ibn Ans
of Mecca became dominant from the late eighth century onwards.
This was amongst the most literal and severe of the schools of thought
in its interpretation of Qu'ranic law, and its wholesale acceptance
in Al-Andalus may well represent the fundamentalism of the tiny
entrenched community of Muslims in a largely non-Islamic Spain.66
Its continuing strength may also explain both the fiercely independ-
ent stand that individual judges could take in imposing the law, even
against the wishes of the Umayyad rulers, and also the dichotomy
between religious orthodoxy and humanistic thought that was par-
ticularly marked in Al-Andalus. Conflicts between revealed religion
and philosophical speculation were a feature of many parts of the
Islamic world from the tenth century onwards, but the hold of ex-
treme Malikite orthodoxy in Spain may well have limited the scope
and support for the latter in the peninsula. For, despite the consid-
erable achievements of Spanish Muslims in scientific and literary fields,
the religious orthodoxy of the intelligentsia in the Umayyad period
is especially marked, as is its avoidance of certain areas of speculative
thought. The supposed destruction of certain sections of the caliph
Al-I:Iakam II's library to appease religious opinion is a further indica-
tion of the strength of fundamentalism.
The judges or qadis were, at least in the main cities, appointed by
the amir or caliph. The most prestigious post was that of Qadi of
Cordoba, and the holder of that office helped to set the tone of the
regime in respect of its religious image. Thus men of outstanding
piety were frequently appointed, although their unswerving ortho-
doxy and rigour might lead to confrontations with the ruler and his
court. The amir or caliph could and on occasion did dismiss a qadi,
but this could have a detrimental effect upon public opinion. Stories
of the eminent justice of certain qadis, such as Ibn Bashir (d. 813) of
Cordoba became part of popular folklore.^67 Little is known about
individual qadis outside the capital, but their influence must have
had some weight in determining the attitudes of local populations