262 EARLY MEDIEVAL SPAINFrom the later tenth century on, paralleled by the appearance of
the jueros in Leon and Castille, charters were issued by the counts of
Barcelona and other lesser landowners such as the bishops, which
gave exceptional rights to their recipients, the inhabitants of the newly-
created frontier towns and smaller fortified settlements and their
related rural territories. The earliest of those now extant is the char-
ter issued by Count Borrel II (954-992) to the inhabitants of Cardona,
though references in deeds of confirmation make it seem likely that
even earlier examples once existed.^63 Cardona, founded by Wifred I,
is probably a case in point as Borrel II makes an unspecific reference
to a document issued by his ancestor. In the extant text of 986 the
count-marquess guarantees the inhabitants security of tenure for their
properties and freedom from some taxes and tolls. They were re-
quired to continue payment of a tithe to the Church of St Vincent in
Cardona and to maintain the walls and towers of the settlement for
defence against both 'pagans and Christians'. The Viscount Ermemir
and his heirs were established by the charter to act as patrons to the
citizens and with their 'ministers' to provide local government. No
one else was to be allowed to try to make themselves senior amongst
them. The inhabitants were required to take part in comital 'hostings',
that is tum out to fight offensively or defensively at the ruler's com-
mand, and anyone failing to assist in the defence of the town was to
be excommunicated and deprived of his goods by his fellows.
Although similar in principle to the near contemporary jueros of
Leon, the Cardona charter shows that important differences existed
between the Leonese kingdom and the county of Barcelona in such
matters as the measure of self-government allowed to the citizens. In
the Leonese case authority was principally vested in a council, and
important functionaries such as the market officials were elected by
the community, whereas in Cardona all governmental power lay with
the Viscount, appointed by the Count of Barcelona whose family was
henceforth to enjoy hereditary tenure. In the Catalan case lordship
was being created, whilst in Leon the emphasis was on autonomy, at
least for the upper ranks of the citizenry in a society that was highly
stratified. On the other hand, in Cardona the inhabitants were envis-
aged as being equal under the lord, and were expressly required to
pull down any of their number who sought to claim superior status
to his fellows. Varied and complex as was the history of these societies
in the course of the centuries to follow, it is clear that the roots of the
differences in social structure and political life between the kingdoms