ReluctantAlliesandDisappointedExpectations,
JulytoNovember 1914
Thepoliticaldevelopmentsof 191 4leftnotimeforthoroughreformsintheOtto-
manforces,whichhadbeenconceptualizedasaten-yearprogrambyColmar
vonderGoltzbeforetheJulycrisis.²⁰⁶WiththeriseoftensionsinJuly 191 4,
theOttomanmilitaryandpoliticalleaders,recallingtherejectedallianceby
GreatBritaintheyearbefore,turnedtowardsGermany.Itisbeyondthescope
ofthisstudytofurtherevaluatetheconsiderationsoftheOttomanleadership
atthispoint.²⁰⁷Itshouldbementioned,however,thattheOttomanstatefeared
asimilarfateasothercontemporaryvictimsoftheEuropeanimperialistandex-
pansionistpolicy.²⁰⁸AnalliancewiththeCentralPowersseemedtobethebest
alternativetosecuretheexistenceoftheempire.NeitherGermanynorAustria-
Hungarywerealtruistknightsinshiningarmor,²⁰⁹andItaly,theirreluctant
ally, hadsettled hostilitieswith theOttoman stateoverthe occupation of
LibyaontheeveoftheBalkanWars.
ItwasnotonlyItalywhichurgedtheGermanGeneralStafftoguaranteeOt-
tomansupportintheearlyphaseofthewar.AswaslaterthecasewiththeOtto-
manarmy,GermanyhadarrangedoperationswiththeItalianGeneralStaff.The
ItalianarmywasthoughttodefendthesouthernflankandfightFrancefromthe
Alps,sothattheAustro-HungarianarmycouldhaveconcentratedontheRussian
deployment.WithregardtotheuseofItaliantroopsontheWestfront,thegen-
eralstaffofbothcountriesagreeduponputtingtheItaliancontingentunderGer-
mancommand.²¹⁰However,Italyremainedneutralandeventuallyjoinedthe
ColmarvonderGoltz,“DieTürkeiimzweitenJahreihrerWiedererhebung,”Asiatisches
Jahrbuch(1914),9.
FerozA.K.Yasamee,“OttomanEmpire,”inDecisionsforWar, 1914 ,ed.KeithWilson(Lon-
don:UCLPress, 199 5), 229 – 26 8;MesutUyar,“OttomanStrategyandWarAimsduringtheFirst
WorldWar,”inThePurposeoftheFirstWorldWar.WarAimsandMilitaryStrategies,ed.Holger
Afflerbach(Berlin:DeGruyter,2015), 164 – 16 7;MustafaAksakal,“TheOttomanEmpire,”inEm-
piresatWar, 1911 – 1923 ,ed.RobertGerwarthetal.(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress, 2014 ), 17 – 33 ;
AlexandreToumarkine:“FritzFischerandtheOttomanEmpire:IllusionsontheBosphorus?,”in
BidforWorldPower?NewResearchontheOutbreakoftheFirstWorldWar,ed.AndreasGestrich
etal.(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress, 2017 ), 289 – 309.
Aksakal,TheOttomanRoadtoWarin1 914 ,40.
ForGermany’sterritorialinterestsinAnatoliaseeAksakal,TheOttomanRoadtoWarin
1914 ,67.FortheDualmonarchy’sclaimsseeFrancisRoyBridge,“TardeVenientibusOssa.Aus-
tro-HungarianColonialAspirationsinAsiaMinor 1913 – 14 ,”MiddleEasternStudies 6 – 3( 1970 ),
319 – 33 0.
MichaelPalumbo,“German-ItalianMilitaryRelationsontheEveofWorldWarI,”Central
EuropeanHistory 12 – 4( 1979 ), 344.
74 2ThePeakofKnowledgeTransfer