142 Fist Fighting and Self-Cultivation
subverting biological time it was possible to regain the fetus’s limitless potential
for growth. Since the embryo was fed through the umbilical cord, it was neces-
sary to emulate him, breathing through the navel.^12 Titled “embryonic respira-
tion” (taixi), this physiological practice harked back to the fecund imagery of
the infant in the Daoist Way and its Power (Daode jing) (ca. fourth century BCE):
One who possesses virtue in abundance is comparable to a new born
babe;
Poisonous insects will not sting it;
Ferocious animals will not pounce on it;
Predatory birds will not swoop down on it.
Its bones are weak and its sinews supple yet its hold is firm.
It does not know of the union of male and female yet its male member
will stir:
This is because its virility is at its height.
It howls all day yet does not become hoarse:
This is because its harmony is at its height.
To know harmony is called the constant;
To know the constant is called discernment.^13More than a millennium after its formulation, “embryonic respiration” was to
influence the late imperial martial arts. The term “lower cinnabar field” fig-
ures in late Ming and early Qing bare-handed fighting styles such as Shaolin
Quan, Taiji Quan, and Xingyi Quan. There, however, the navel’s significance
is explained not only in terms of breathing but also in terms of mechanical bal-
ance. Quan practitioners consider the navel as the body’s center of gravity, and
they recommend turning from it, rather than from the chest or shoulders.
This emphasis upon the lower abdomen is related to the significance of the
legs in Chinese fighting. Unlike Western boxing, which makes use of the arms
only (and in which the chest is often the center of attention,) quan techniques
make abundant use of kicking.
Daoyin breathing techniques underwent a significant transformation dur-
ing the medieval period, when the emphasis shifted from the manipulation of
external qi (a ir) to the circulation of internal qi (the body’s inborn vitality or en-
ergy). Perhaps because holding the breath for prolonged periods led to acci-
dents, practitioners turned their attention to the flow of one’s own “primary
vitality” (yuanqi), which was bestowed upon each person at birth and was con-
sidered identical to the primordial energy of heaven and earth. One could ei-
ther follow by meditation the natural flow of energy within the body, or one
could actively alter its course, directing it to specific locations. The internal qi
could be guided, for example, to an ailing area, thereby curing it.^14 These tech-
niques were to exert a profound influence on the later evolution of unarmed
fighting. In late imperial hand combat, the martial artist concentrates his in-
ternal energy for defensive and offensive purposes alike. He may muster his qi