412 Between Yesterday and Tomorrow (1914– )impact in the longer term. One was the establishment of a permanent moni-
toring body (called, somewhat blandly, the Human Rights Committee) to
oversee compliance by the states. It was composed of individuals sitting in
their personal capacities (in the manner of World Court judges). Most inter-
estingly, an Optional Protocol was appended to the Civil and Po liti cal Cov-
enant, in which states allowed individuals to bring claims against them for
violation of the covenant before the Human Rights Committee.
Th ere even began to be some lessening of Cold War tensions, following the
death of Stalin in 1953. From the socialist camp there emerged a new doctrine
of peaceful coexistence between the two blocs of states— a program of formal
correctness between them, if not exactly of passionate love. Th is was formally
unveiled in 1956 at a conference of the International Law Association— the
fi rst gathering of that body to be attended by lawyers from the socialist
bloc. It eventually led to a consensus resolution of the UN General Assem-
bly in 1970, known as the Declaration on Friendly Relations, setting out the
fundamental principles of post- 1945 international law. Th ese included the
sovereign equality of states, the prohibition against the use of force, the
principle of nonintervention, the duty of peaceful settlement of disputes,
and the right of self- determination of peoples. Th e importance of this decla-
ration has been indicated by its invocation by the World Court in several
judgments.
Various achievements were possible in technical areas where there was
relatively little po liti cal clamor. In 1959, for example, the Antarctic Treaty
was concluded, leading to the suspension of all territorial claims to the
southern continent. It also provided for the complete demilitarization of
Antarctica, reserving the area for scientifi c purposes. In 1967, a multilateral
convention regulating outer space activities was completed— although it
stopped short of full demilitarization. In 1979, a treaty was concluded
specifi cally relating to the moon, reserving that silvery orb “exclusively for
peaceful purposes.” Th ere was also a treaty, concluded in 1968, for the res-
cue of astronauts.
Th e International Law Commission
Th e most fruitful— if also least visible— achievements in international law
during this period came from the steady and patient work of the Interna-