Benjamin I. Schwartz, “Th e Chinese Perception of World Order, Past and Pres-
ent,” in John K. Fairbank, ed., Chinese World Order: Traditional China’s Foreign Rela-
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G. E. R. Lloyd, Ancient Worlds, Modern Refl ections: Philosophical Perspectives
on Greek and Chinese Science and Culture (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2004), 161; and
Yang Lien- sheng, “Historical Notes on the Chinese World Order,” in Fairbank, ed.,
Chinese World Order, 20– 33, 27– 28.
Charles Holcombe, Th e Genesis of East Asia 221 b.c.–a.d. 907 (Honolulu, HI:
Association for Asian Studies, 2001), 40– 41, 48– 52.
See Kirk W. Larsen, Tradition, Treaties, and Trade: Qing Imperialism and Choson
Korea, 1850– 1910 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008). On the operation
of the tribute system, see Sechin Jagchid and Van Jay Symons, Peace, War, and Trade
along the Great Wall: Nomadic- Chinese Interaction through Two Millennia (Blooming-
ton: Indiana University Press, 1989), 114– 40.
Wang Gungwu, “Th e Rhetoric of a Lesser Empire: Early Sung Relations with
Its Neighbors,” in Morris Rossabi, ed., China among Equals: Th e Middle Kingdom and
Its Neighbors, 10th– 14th Centuries, 47– 65 (Berkeley, CA: University of California
Press, 1983), 58– 59; and Tao Jing- shen, “Barbarians or Northerners: Northern Sung
Images of the Khitans,” in ibid., 67.
Herbert Franke, “Sung Embassies: Some General Observations,” in Rossabi,
ed., China among Equals, 116– 48, 117– 18. For a general history of Chinese relations
with its Asian neighbors, see Jagchid and Symons, Peace, War, and Trade; and Th omas
J. Barfi eld, Th e Perilous Frontier: Nomadic Empires and China, 221 BC to AD 1757
(Oxford: Blackwell, 1989).
Wang Gungwu, “Rhetoric of a Lesser Empire,” 55– 62.
Tao Jing- shen, “Barbarians or Northerners,” 71– 72.
Plato, Republic, 171.
Aristotle, Rhetoric, in Basic Works, 1359.
Ibid., 1370.
For a succinct pre sen ta tion of stoic ideas of natural law, see Maryanne Cline
Horowitz, “Th e Stoic Synthesis of the Idea of Natural Law in Man: Four Th emes,” 35 J.
Hist. Ideas 3– 16 (1974).
See Plutarch, “On the Fortune or Virtue of Alexander,”in Moralia, trans. Frank
Cole Babbitt, 379– 487 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1936 [ca. ad 100]),
389– 405.
H. C. Baldry, Th e Unity of Mankind in Greek Th ought (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1965), 113– 27.
Cicero, Republic, 68– 69.
See Cicero, De Offi ciis, trans. Walter Miller (London: Heinemann, 1921 [44
bc]), 291.
Gaius, Th e Institutes, trans. Francis de Zulueta (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1946
[ca. ad 170]), 3.
